UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 
EGYPTIAN   DEPARTMENT  OF  THE   UNIVERSITY  MUSEUM 


ECKLEY  B.  COXE  JUNIOR  EXPEDITION  TO  NUBIA: 

VOL.  II 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


BY 

GEOFFREY  S.  MILEHAM 

EDITED  BY 

D.  RANDALL-MACIVER 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  MUSEUM 
PHILADELPHIA 


M  CM  X 


i.^)visioQ 

Srrtton 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2015 


https://archive.org/details/churchesinlowernOOmile_0 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 
EGYPTIAN   DEPARTMENT  OF  THE   UNIVERSITY  MUSEUM 


ECKLEY  B.  COXE  JUNIOR  EXPEDITION  TO  NUBIA: 

VOL.  II 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


BY 

GEOFFREY  S.  MILEHAM 

EDITED  BY 

D.  RANDALL-MACIVER 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  MUSEUM 
PHILADELPHIA 


MCMX 


Letter    Press    and    Printing  by 
The  John  C.  Winstok  Co. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  U.  S.  A. 


Collotypes  and  Process  Blocks  by 

Horace  Hart 
Clarendon  Press,  Oxford,  England. 


(iv) 


In  the  Same  Series 

Vo].  I  ARE  IK  A 

BY  D.  Randall-MacIver  and  C.  Leonard  Woolley 


Vols.  Ill  and  IV  KARANOG 

THE  ROMANO-NUBIAN  CEMETERY 

BY  C.  Leonard  Woolley  and  D.  Randall-MacIver 


Price  $5. 


Price  $20. 


To  be  obtained  at  the  University  Museum, 
Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  U.  S.  A. 

Agent  for  Europe:  Henry  Frowde, 
Amen  Corner,  Paternoster  Row,  London. 


(V) 


PREFACE 


This  volume  is  the  second  of  a  series  which  will  record  the  results  of  explorations  in  Egypt, 
planned  and  financed  by  Mr.  Eckley  B.  Coxe,  Junior,  of  Philadelphia.  By  an  agreement  made 
with  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  in  January,  1907,  the  expeditions  are  to  be  conducted  on 
behalf  of  the  University,  and  the  antiquities  obtained  will  be  presented  to  the  University  Museum. 

The  volume  is  edited  by  the  curator  of  the  Egyptian  Department  of  the  Museum,  Avho 
discovered  the  sites  and  to  a  great  extent  supervised  the  work  upon  them  which  is  described. 
The  author  is  an  English  architect  who  was  attached  to  the  staff  during  the  seasons  of  1908 
and  1909,  for  the  special  purpose  of  making  technical  studies  of  the  Early  Christian  buildings 
of  Lower  Nubia.  His  researches  have  been  confined  to  the  Southern  part  of  the  country  between 
the  two  cataracts,  and  may  be  said  to  form  a  complete  monograph  on  that  part  of  the  district, 
from  Faras  to  Haifa  inclusive,  which  belongs  to  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  book  may  serve  to  awaken  public  interest  in  a  subject  which  has 
hitherto  been  much  neglected,  the  history  of  Early  Christian  architecture  in  Egypt.  It  is  our 
aim  to  show  that  this  is  worthy  of  study,  both  for  its  own  sake  and  in  connection  with  the 
Byzantine  architecture  of  Europe  and  Asia.  We  present  this  memoir  in  the  form  of  a  simple 
record  of  observations,  preferring  to  leave  to  future  writers  who  may  command  a  greater  store 
of  comparative  material  the  task  of  drawing  historical  analogies  and  conclusions. 

G.  S.  M. 
D.  R.  M. 


(vii) 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface.       ..............  vii 

CHAPTER  I 

General  Introduction  ............  i 

CHAPTER  IT 

Nubian  Church  Construction       ..........  7 

CHAPTER  III 

The  Church  near  Debereh  .........        .       .  14 

CHAPTER  IV 

Faras    ...............  22 

CHAPTER  V 

The  Northern  Church  at  Faras  ..........  27 

CHAPTER  VI 

The  Southern  Church  at  Faras  .........  .31 

CHAPTER  VII 

The  two  Churches  near  Addendan      ........  -37 

CHAPTER  VIII 

The  Ancient  Fortress  and  the  Churches  at  Serreh  ......  40 

CHAPTER  IX 

The  Church  near  Wady  Halfa    ........        .       .  48 


(ix) 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 


PAGE 

The  Process  of  Modern  Vaulting  ...........  9 

Detail  of  Relieving  Arch  over  Doorway.        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  .10 

Plan  of  Church  at  Figiranton       .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  .12 

Construction  of  Apse  Vault  .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  -15 

Lintel  to  North  Door,  near  Debereh      .        .        .        ,        .        .        .        .        .  -17 

Objects  found  in  Church  near  Debereh  ..........  20 

Doll  from  Ditch  at  Faras  23 
Tombs  in  Southern  Church,  Faras        ,        .         .        .        .        .        .        .        .  -32 

Base  from  Haikal  of  Southern  Church,  Faras.        ........  33 

Objects  found  in  Southern  Church,  Faras      .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  -35 

Bronze  Ornament  from  North  Domed  Church,  Serreh     .......  43 

Ancient  Granite  Block  in  South  Domed  Church,  Serreh  .......  45 

Granite  Capital  and  Base  of  Column  in  Southern  Church,  Serreh      .        .        .        .  .46 

Granite  Column  from  Doorway  of  Southern  Church,  Serreh     .        .        .        .        .  -47 

Restoration  of  a  Painting  on  wood  found  in  Church  near  Wady  Haifa  .  .  .  -  So 
Objects  found  in  the  Church  near  Wady  Haifa       .......  52-56 


(xi) 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


PLATE 

1.  Coloured  Frontispiece. 

2.  (a)  Begrash,  The  Gate.    (6)  Kasr  Ibrim  from  the  North,    (c)  Kasr  Ibrim:  View 

OF  THE  Interior  of  the  Church  Looking  East. 

3.  (a)  Kelaa-t-adda  :  View  from  the  River.    (6)  Wiss:  The  Principal  Building  from 

THE  North,    (c)  Wiss:  The  Principal  Building  from  the  East. 

4.  The  Church  Opposite  Debereh.    (a)  View  from  the  North,    (fc)  Interior  Looking 

East. 

5.  The  Church  Opposite  Debereh.    (a)  View  from  the  South,    (b)  View  from  the 

Northwest. 

6.  The  Church  Opposite  Debereh.    (a)  Capital  from  Arch  of  Triumph.    (6)  Cross 

Design  on  Lintel  from  North  Door,    (c)  Interior  Looking  West. 

7.  The  Church  Opposite  Debereh.    Stela  Found  in  Haikal. 

8.  The  Church  Opposite  Debereh.    Plan.    Longitudinal  Section. 

9.  The  Church    Opposite    Debereh.     Cross   Section.     Cross   Section  (Restored). 

Longitudinal  Section  (Restored). 

10.  Sketch  Map  of  the  District  of  Faras. 

11.  Faras,  The  Fortress,    (a)  The  Central  Building  from  the  North.    (5)  The  Central 

Building  from  the  Southwest,  (c)  The  Fortress  Wall  and  Central  Building 
FROM  the  West. 

12.  Faras.    (a)  Remains  of  Church,  Partly  Rock-cut.    (b)  The  Gate  in  the  Fortress 

Wall,    (c)  General  View  of  Faras  from  the  West. 

13.  Faras,  The  Northern  Church,    (a)  Entrance  to  the  Tomb  at  East  of  Church. 

(6)  Interior  of  Church  Looking  East. 

14.  Faras,  The  Northern  Church.  Plan. 

15.  Faras,  The  Northern  Church.    Cross  Section.    Longitudinal  Section. 

16.  Faras,  The  Southern  Church,    (a)  Interior  Looking  West,  before  Excavation. 

(6)  Interior  Looking  East,  Showing  Tribune,  Altar  and  Pulpit. 

17.  Faras,  The  Southern  Church.  Plan. 

18.  Faras,  The  Southern  Church. 

19.  Faras — Pottery  from  the  Churches,    (a)   Cup  or  Chalice  from  South  Church. 

(b)  Bowl  from  North  Church,  (c)  Bowls  from  North  Church,  Faras. 
(d)  Bowls  from  South  Church,  Faras. 

(xiii) 


LIST  OF  PLATES  xv 

PLATE 

20.    Pottery  Lamps,    (a)  From  South  Church  at  Faras.    (b)  From  Tomb  in  South  Church. 

Faras.    (c)  From  Church  near  Halfa.    (d)  Lamps  from  Faras  and  Halfa 
(e)  Lamps  from  South  Church  at  Faras. 

21     The  Northern  Church  near  Addendan.    (a)  View  from  the  South,    (b)  Interior. 
Looking  East. 

22.  The  Northern  Church  near  Addendan.    (a)  View  of  Vaulting  to  the  South  Aisle 

FROM  the  Haikal.    (6)  The  South  Aisle  Looking  East. 

23.  The  Northern  Church  near  Addendan.  Plan. 

24.  The  Northern  Church  near  Addendan.    Cross  Section.    Longitudinal  Section. 

25.  The  Domed  Church  near  Addendan.    (a)  View  from  Southwest.     (6)  Sketch  of 

Church  (Restored)  from  the  Southeast. 

26.  Addendan.    (a)  Capital  from  the  North  Church.    (6)  The  Domed  Church,  Interior 

Looking  West,  (c)  The  Domed  Church,  Southeast,  Cupola  from  Inside. 
(d)  The  Domed  Church,  Southeast,  Cupola  from  Outside. 

27.  The  Domed  Church  near  Addendan.    Plan.    Longitudinal  Section. 

28.  The  Domed  Church  near  Addendan.    Cross  Section.    Detail  of  Brickwork,  North 

Aisle  Wall. 

29.  East  Serreh.    (a)  View  of  Southern  Half  of  the  Town,    (b)  View  of  Northern 

Half  of  the  Town,    (c)  General  View  of  the  Town  fro.m  the  River. 

30.  East  Serreh.    (a)   Plan  of  Central  Domed  Church.     (b)  Plan  of  the  Fortress, 

showing  Position  of  the  Churches. 

31.  East  Serreh,  The  Central  Domed  Church,    (a)  Interior  Looking  East.    (6)  View 

of  Dome  from  the  South,    (c)  View  from  the  West. 

32.  East  Serreh.    (a)  The  North  Domed  Church  from  the  South,    (b)  The  Fortress 

Wall,  South  Side. 

33.  East  Serreh,  The  South  Domed  Church,    (a)  The  North  Door.    (6)  View  at  Roof 

Level  from  Northeast,    (c)  View  from  the  Southwest. 

34.  East  Serreh,  The  North  and  South  Domed  Churches,    (a)  Plan  of  the  North 

Domed  Church,    (b)  Plan  of  the  South  Domed  Church. 

35.  East  Serreh,  The  North  AND  South  Domed  Churches.   Cross  Sections.  Longitudinal 

Sections. 

36.  East  Serreh,  The  South  Church.  Plan. 

37.  The  Church  near  Wady  Halfa.    View  from  Northeast,  Showing  Altar  of  Latest 

Period.  Plan. 

38.  The  Church  near  Wady  Halfa.    (a)  Brass  Bells  Found  in  Staircase.    (6)  Iron 

Crosses  Found  in  Haikal.    (c)  Granite  Bowl. 

39.  Map  of  the  River  Nile,  Showing  Position  of  the  Sites. 


CHAPTER  I 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 

"^HE  tourist  who  travels  from  Aswan  to  Haifa  on  a  luxurious  steamboat  seldom  even  notices  Value  and 
the  existence  of  numerous  buildings  of  which  his  guide  book  gives  no  explanation  or  description.  ^£arly^^ 
If  it  so  chances  that  his  eye  is  caught  for  a  moment  by  a  structure  more  imposing  than  common,  Christian 
he  sees  perhaps  that  it  is  built  of  mud  bnck  and  dismisses  it  with  contempt  as  probably  modem,  ^j^^  Nile 
A  liberally  educated  dragoman  will  perhaps  tell  him  that  it  dates  from  Dervish  times,  some  Valley. 
listless  bystander  will  evolve  original  observations  on  bricks  made  with  straw,  and  perchance 
one  of  those  who  turn  to  draw  the  bow  at  a  venture  will  hazard  the  word  "Coptic."    The  idea 
that  there  can  be  any  interest  in  a  Coptic  building  will  be  so  remote  from  the  minds  of  many 
that  the  subject  will  be  dismissed  as  unworthy  of  further  consideration. 

The  opprobrium  which  some  archaeologists  have  attached  to  the  word  Coptic  may  easily  be 
understood.  To  them  the  Copt  figures  simply  as  a  destroyer,  the  man  who  scribbled  graffiti 
on  the  walls  and  statues,  who  mutilated  the  sanctuaries  of  Egyptian  temples  and  turned  them 
to  the  purpose  of  his  own  worship ;  the  vandal,  in  fact,  who  profaned  and  demolished  all  that  the 
scholar  interested  in  the  art  of  ancient  Egypt  holds  dear. 

It  is  only  of  late  years  that  those  possessed  of  a  truer  historical  sense  have  realized  that  the 
development  of  Egypt  is  continuous;  that  it  does  not  cease  with  the  founding  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  with  the  introduction  of  Christianity  or  with  the  invasion  of  the  Mohammedans;  but 
that  the  Roman,  the  Christian  and  the  Mohammedan  periods  have  each  their  interest  and  their 
importance.  It  is  these  periods  which  link  the  past  with  the  present,  which  connect  us  of  the 
twentieth  century  after  Christ  with  Egypt  of  sixty  centuries  ago;  and  if  they  formed  nothing 
but  a  bridge,  that  bridge  is  so  valuable  to  us  that  it  cannot  be  neglected.  But,  if  we  may 
continue  the  metaphor,  the  bridge  itself  is  a  structure  of  no  little  grandeur  and  magnificence,  of 
no  little  wealth  in  detail  of  ornament  and  sculpture,  carving,  picture  and  text. 

The  truer  view  is  gradually  winning  recognition.  Roman  antiquities  in  Egypt  are  no  longer 
despised  because  they  do  not  date  from  the  time  of  the  Pyramid  builders,  Mohammedan  art 
is  studied  with  enthusiasm  by  all  lovers  of  the  beautiful.  The  early  Christian  period  alone  has 
been  neglected  and  that  in  great  measure  owing  to  the  unhappy  prejudice  against  everything 
that  is  nicknamed  "Coptic." 

For  many  years  it  was  supposed  that  the  early  Christian  inhabitants  of  Egypt  conferred 
only  one  benefit  upon  the  world,  and  that  as  it  were  by  accident — they  had  preserved  the  remains 
of  the  hieroglyphic  language  in  their  service  books  and  theological  works.  That  they  had  arts 
and  industries  deserving  of  study  remained  a  secret  known  only  to  the  discerning  few,  and,  until 
the  publication  of  Butler's  "Coptic  Churches,"*  perhaps  no  one  in  Europe  even  suspected  how 
much  of  permanent  value  these  early  Christians  had  contributed  to  the  history  of  Architecture. 

Butler's  work  was  confined  to  Cairo  and  the  Natron  Valley,  and  though  in  recent  years 
the  Red  and  White  Monasteries  at  Sohag  have  been  rescued  from  neglect,  and  steps  are  now 
being  taken  to  preserve  many  of  the  ancient  churches  and  monasteries  which  are  still  in  use. 


*The  Ancient  Coptic  Churches  of  Egypt.  Alfred  J.  Butler,  M.  A.,  F.  S.  A.,  Oxford,  The  Clarendon  Press, 
1884. 


2 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


Date  of  the 
Conversion 
of  Nubia  to 


Value  and  yet  the  general  student  can  have  but  little  idea  of  the  great  number  of  early  Christian  churches  and 
£ar/j^^'  °^    secular  buildings  which  exist  in  remoter  regions. 

Christian  It  was  in  the  hope  of  awakening  interest  in  this  neglected  field  that  the  Eckley  B.  Coxe,  Jr., 

the^Nile^^^^  Expedition  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  entrusted  me  with  the  task  of  studying  some 
Valley.        representative  examples  of  early  Christian  architecture  in  the  southern  half  of  Lower  Nubia. 

Accompanying  Dr.  Randall-Maclver,  who  kindly  assisted  me  in  the  field-work  and  directed  the 
workmen  in  their  excavations,  I  made  a  number  of  studies  in  the  spring  of  1908,  which  were 
amplified  and  completed  in  1909.  A  new  and  unsuspected  chapter  in  the  histor\'  of  Architecture 
was  gradually  unfolded  to  our  view  and  it  is  the  object  of  this  volume  to  make  it  known  to  a 
wider  circle  of  students. 

When  the  Mohammedan  conquerors  first  penetrated  into  Nubia  (640  to  641  a.  d.)  they 
found  the  country  to  be  a  stronghold  of  Christianity.  It  had  then,  however,  been  converted  only 
Christianity,  a  short  time,  for  though  occasional  fugitives  may  have  come  in  from  Egypt  during  the  preceding 
centuries  the  general  Christianization  of  Lower  Nubia  is  not  earlier  than  the  reign  of  Silko,  the 
king  who  warred  against  the  still  pagan  Blemyes  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  a.  d. 
Silko  himself  was  the  first  Christian  king  of  the  northern  part  of  Lower  Nubia  and  to  the  time 
of  one  of  his  successors,  Eirpanome  (circa  559  a.  d.),  belongs  the  Church  of  Dendur,  probably  the 
earliest  in  this  region.  South  of  Maharraka,  Nubia  remained  pagan  until  the  power  of  the  Blemyes 
had  been  broken.  It  was  the  victory  of  Silko  which  made  possible  the  two  missions  of  evangeli- 
zation sent  immediately  afterwards  from  Byzantium:  the  one  b}^  the  Emperor  Justinian  and 
the  other  by  the  Empress  Theodora. 

The  members  of  this  latter  mission  were  Monophysites,  as  the  Empress  herself  was  an  ardent 
supporter  of  that  heresy.  The  former  mission  appears  to  have  been  delayed  in  Egypt  and  the 
first  Nubian  converts  were  made  by  the  Jacobites.  The  withdrawal  of  the  Monophysite  mission 
by  the  Empress  afforded  to  the  orthodox  mission  the  opportunity  of  bringing  the  Nubian  church 
into  line  with  the  orthodox  Eastern  Church  and  it  appears  to  have  remained  subject  to  Constan- 
tinople for  nearly  a  century. 

The  account  of  Nubia  given  by  Quatremere  in  extracts  from  the  work  of  mediaeval  writers 
contains  a  good  description  of  the  country,  which,  although  it  is  not  as  lucid  as  might  be  desired, 
throws  some  light  on  the  geographical  and  political  conditions.* 

At  first  glance  the  various  mentions  of  places  in  Nubia  are  confusing,  but  careful  study 
shows  that  they  are  consistent.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  assign  exact  positions  to  many  places 
mentioned,  as  the  influence  of  the  Mohammedan  invasion  and  the  shifting  of  the  population  during 
various  internal  troubles  have  caused  a  complete  change  in  many  of  the  places  named.  The 
clearest  account  is  given  by  Abdallah  ben  Ahmad  ben  Solaim,  who  describes  the  Umits  of  two 
extensive  Nubian  kingdoms  on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Nile.  The  first  Nubian  town  reached 
from  Egypt  was  at  Al-Kasr,  the  name  signifying  the  Castle,  a  few  miles  to  the  south  of  Aswan, 
and,  therefore,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  cataract  which  formed  the  natural  strategical  boundary 
between  Egypt  and  the  country  of  the  black  races  as  it  had  often  done  in  former  centuries. 

From  Al-Kasr  to  "the  first  cataract  which  forms  part  of  Nubia  "  the  distance  is  stated  to  have 
been  ten  days  journey. f  A  later  mention  of  this  "first  cataract"  by  the  same  author,  Abdallah 
ben  Ahmad  ben  Solaim,  shows  that  he  refers  to  the  cataract  which  is  now  called  the  "second," 
for  he  says  that  it  begins  at  a  town  called  Bakouy  which  is  the  port  where  the  boats  stop  which 


Mediaeval 

Descriptions 

and 

Geography. 


*Memoires  g^ographiques  et  historiques  sur 
I'Egypte,  et  sur  quelques  Contrees  voisines.  Par 
Et.  Quatremere,  Paris,  181 1,  Vol.  II. 

fVoici  ce  que  dit  Abdallah  ben  Ahmed  ben 
Solaim  de  la  V  lie  d'Asouan,  dans  son  ouvrage 
intitule:  Histore  de  la  Nubie,  du  Makorrah, 
d'Alouah,  du  Be  'jah  et  du  Nil. 


La  Nubie  commence  au  bourg  nomme  Al- 
Kasr  (le  Chateau),  situe  a  cinq  milles  de  la  ville 
d'Asouan  

De  ce  bourg  a  la  premiere  cataracte,  qui  fait 
partie  de  la  Nubie,  la  distance  est  dix  joum^es  . 
 (Quatremere,  Vol.  II,  pp.  6,  7.) 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 


3 


come  up  from  Al-Kasr  and  that  between  this  former  place  and  Maks  there  are  six  stations,  in  a  Medieeval 

wild  and  barren  district,  and  he  dwells  at  great  length  on  the  rocky  nature  of  the  country  and 

the  succession  of  rapids.*    This  is  a  very  truthful  description  of  the  country  now  called  the  Geography 

Batn-el-hagar,  Belly  of  Stones,  which  lies  immediately  to  the  south  of  the  second  cataract  of 

the  Nile;  and  the  fact  that  the  boats  stopped  at  the  entrance  to  the  cataract  accords  with  the 

existing  conditions,  because  for  all  ordinary  purposes  it  is  impracticable  to  pass  the  second 

cataract  by  water. 

According  to  the  accounts  collected  by  Quatremere  the  Northern  Nubian  kingdom  which  The  Two 
was  called  Makorrah  appears  to  have  extended  as  far  south  as  the  Atbara  River  and  the  whole  ^j^^^i^^ 
of  the  country  from  Al-Kasr  to  that  point  was  then  subject  to  the  King  of  Dongola.  The  southern 
kingdom  was  called  Alouah  or  Alwah  (in  the  Coptic  texts  AAOTAIA)  and  included  the  "seven 
rivers  of  the  Nile, "  that  is  to  say,  the  Atbara,  the  White  and  Blue  Niles  and  their  tributaries,  but 
the  southern  boundaries  of  this  kingdom  are  in  no  way  defined  by  the  various  historians.  The 
capital  of  this  kingdom,  Alouah,  Souiah  or  Swiah,  was  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  White  and 
Blue  Niles  on  the  east  of  the  northern  extremity  of  the  large  island  formed  by  the  two  rivers. 
Thus  the  town  must  have  occupied  the  position  of  modem  Khartoum  if  the  "island"  is  to  be 
considered  to  mean  the  land  between  the  two  rivers,  or  else  it  must  have  been  built  on  such  a  site 
as  the  present  island  of  Touti  which  adjoins  Khartoum. 

In  the  present  volume  we  do  not  deal  further  with  the  kingdom  of  Alouah,  but  it  may  be 
noted  that  the  inhabitants  were  Jacobite  Christians  and  that  their  Bishops  were  subordinate 
to  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria. 

From  the  various  accounts  given  by  the  Arab  historians  of  the  Northern  Nubian  ki  ngdom  Province  of 
it  appears  that  the  country  was  divided  into  well-defined  provinces  ruled  by  almost  independent 
chiefs  who  were  subject  to  the  king.  The  province  which  comes  under  our  immediate  considera- 
tion extended  from  Al-Kasr  on  the  north  to  the  southern  end  of  the  Batn-el-hagar.  The  name 
given  to  it  was  Maris  and  it  was  governed  by  an  extremely  powerful  chief  who  bore  the  title  of 
Lord  of  the  Mountain.! 

Three  large  fortress  towns  are  mentioned  as  situated  in  his  domain — Bedjrasch  (Begrash) 
the  capital  of  the  province,  Ibrim  and  Adwa.  It  is  noted  that  Adwa,  called  Daw  by  both  Macrizy 
and  Nowairy,  was  a  port  for  vessels.  J 


*La  premiere  cataracte  de  la  Nubie  commence 
au  bourg  nomm^  Bakouy. 

C'est  un  port  ou  s'arretent  les  barques  de  Nubie, 
qui  remontent  d'Al-Kasr,  frontiere  de  ce  royaume. 
Personne,  Musulman  ou  autre  ne  peut  penetrer  plus 
avant,  sans  la  permission  du  Seigneur  de  la  Montagne. 

Dela  au  Maks  superieur,  on  compte  six  sta- 
tions. Tout  cet  espace  n'est  qu'une  suite  de  rochers 
arides.  C'est  le  plus  affreux  canton  que  j'aie  vu 
dans  tout  le  royaume,  a  raison  de  I'inegalite 
et  du  peu  de  largeur  du  terrain,  et  de  la  difficulte 
des  chemins.  D'un  cote,  le  Nil  est  tout  seme  de 
rocs  et  de  montagnes  qui  obstruent  son  lit,  en  sorte 
qu'il  ne  coule  qu'  au  travers  des  ravins;  et  dans 
quelques  endroits  il  se  retrecit  tellement  qu'il  n'a 
pas  plus  de  cinquante  coudees  d'une  rive  a  I'autre. 
(Quatremere,  Vol.  II,  p.  9.) 

fLa  province  qui  touche  a  la  ville  d'Asouan  et 
aux  frontieres  du  Said,  se  nomme  Maris.  C'est 
elle  qui  donne  son  nom  au  vent  Marisy.  Cette 
Contree  est  habitee  par  des  hommes  libres.  Quant 
aux  habitans  du  reste  de  la  Nubie,  ils  sont  tous 


esclaves  de  leur  roi.  (Quatremere,  Vol.  II,  pp.  29, 
30.) 

JC'est  dans  cette  province  qu'est  situee  la 
ville  de  Bedjrasch,  capital  edu  Maris,  la  forteresse 
d' Ibrim,  et  une  autre  place  nommee  Adwa,  qui  a 
un  port,  et  qui  est,  dit-on,  la  patrie  du  sage  Lokman, 
et  de  Dhoul-Noun.  On  y  voit  un  berba  magnifique. 
Le  gouvemeur  de  cette  province,  releve  du  souver- 
ain  de  la  Nubie,  et  prend  le  titre  de  Seigneur  de  la 
montagne.  C'est  un  des  puissans  officiers  du 
royaume,  a  raison  des  avantages  que  lui  procure  le 
voisinage  des  terres  de  I'islamisme.  En  effet,  tous 
les  Musulmans  qui  entrent  en  Nubie,  trafiquent 
avec  lui,  ou  lui  offrent  des  presens  pour  lui  et  pour 
son  maitre;  il  re^oit  tout,  et  donne  des  esclaves 
en  echange.  II  ne  permet  a  personne,  Musulman 
ou  autre,  de  se  rendre  aupres  du  roi.  La  premiere 
cataracte  de  la  Nubie  commence  au  bourg  nomme 
Bakouy.  C'est  un  port  ou  s'arretent  les  barques  de 
Nubie,  qui  remontent  d'Al-Kasr,  frontiere  de  ce 
royaume.    (Quatremere,  Vol.  II,  pp.  8,  9.) 


4 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


Kasr  Ihrim.  The  fortress  of  Ibrim  is  well  known  to  all  visitors  to  Lower  Nubia  owing  to  its  commanding 
situation  on  one  of  the  three  spurs  of  the  high  sandstone  plateau  of  the  eastern  desert  which 
juts  out  to  the  water's  edge  just  to  the  south  of  the  modem  village  of  Ibrim,  and  about  120  miles 
south  of  the  Cataract  of  Aswan.    (PI.  2,  Fig.  h.) 

The  fortress  is  a  striking  feature  as  viewed  from  the  river,  and  can  be  seen  for  several  miles 
from  both  up  and  down  stream.  It  dates  from  the  time  of  Petronius  (b.  c.  23),  who  fortified 
the  place  as  a  frontier  station  of  the  Romans  against  the  Meroitic  power.  Fragments  of  earlier 
Meroitic  work  are  incorporated  in  the  Roman  walls,  which  have  been  little  altered  in  succeeding 
centuries,  though  the  town  has  been  frequently  occupied  in  mediaeval  and  almost  modem 
days. 

The  most  striking  building  within  the  walls  is  the  church,  which  must  have  been  one  of  the 
finest  examples  of  Christian  building  in  the  Nile  Valley,  and  although  it  has  been  much  damaged 
and  was  altered  considerably  when  it  was  converted  into  a  mosque,  it  stands  very  complete  in 
many  of  its  parts.  All  the  walls  were  carried  up  in  finely  dressed  ashlar,  the  courses  being  some- 
what less  in  depth  than  in  the  buildings  erected  under  the  Roman  Empire,  and  occasional  baulks 
of  timber  were  built  into  the  stonework  to  distribute  the  pressure,  a  method  which  was  often 
employed  in  the  Cairene  churches.  Most  of  the  exterior  walls  of  the  church  are  standing  to  a 
height  of  over  two  metres,  and  at  the  west  end  of  the  south  aisle  there  is  a  projecting  bay  containing 
the  staircase,  which  is  fairly  intact.  The  plan  of  the  church  seems  to  have  consisted  of  a  nave 
with  two  aisles  on  either  side  and  the  usual  apsidal  sanctuary  or  Haikal.  The  aisles  were  divided 
by  an  arcade  of  three  masonry  arches  of  horse-shoe  form  and  the  inner  aisles  were  separated  from 
the  nave  by  colonnades.  (PI.  2,  Fig.  c.) 
Begrash.  The  name  Begrash  has  been  assigned  on  most  of  the  published  maps  of  the  Nile  to  a  ruined 

town  (called  by  the  Nubians  Sheikh  Daoud)  which  lies  some  twelve  miles  to  the  north  of  Kasr 
Ibrim  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river,  and  like  the  latter  is  built  on  a  rocky  eminence,  but  is  separated 
from  the  river  by  a  wide  belt  of  richly  cultivated  land  on  which  stands  the  village  of  Tomas. 
Both  of  these  nained  towns  are  enclosed  by  thick  walls  and  have  extremely  narrow  entrances 
and  the  whole  of  the  enclosed  space  in  each  case  was  thickly  covered  with  houses,  mere  passages 
being  left  for  access.  The  town  has  been  so  much  ruined  that  httle  idea  can  be  formed  of  its 
original  arrangement  without  extensive  clearing  and  excavation,  though  the  north  wall  and 
part  of  the  west  wall,  including  the  gatehouse,  are  in  good  preservation. 

The  gatehouse  was  built  near  the  centre  of  the  west  wall  and  the  entrance  was  effected 
from  the  south  so  that  enemies  attacking  exposed  the  unshielded  side  to  the  defenders  on  the 
wall.  Both  the  inner  and  outer  gates  have  arched  heads,  and  the  outer  one  is  of  stone  laid  without 
mortar  and  has  a  double  fillet  worked  on  the  voussoirs  which  stops  on  the  customary  impost 
(PI.  2,  Fig.  a).  Carefully  dressed  ashlar  laid  without  mortar  was  employed  for  the  walling  of 
the  lower  part  of  this  gatehouse,  the  surface  being  dressed  after  fixing;  above  the  impost  the 
walls  were  carried  up  in  rubble  with  an  upper  story  in  brick.  The  inner  arch  is  of  simple  crude 
brick,  of  skew  form  and  without  any  embellishment.  The  enclosing  walls  of  the  town  comprise 
an  area  of  about  loc  metres  by  70  metres,  with  a  narrow  front  to  the  river.  They  are  built  of 
rubble  and  the  average  thickness  at  the  base  is  about  two  and  a  half  metres,  the  thickness  vary- 
ing with  the  ground  level  as  the  walls  have  a  slight  batter.  A  large  bastion  on  the  north  side, 
which  guarded  a  gully  sloping  up  from  the  lower  ground  to  the  plateau  upon  which  the  town 
stood,  is  very  carefully  built,  and  its  angles  are  strengthened  by  the  use  of  very  long  stones  for  the 
quoins.  The  floor  of  the  town  must  have  been  originally  very  uneven  and  ver\'  steep  in  parts,  and  to 
obviate  the  difficulty  of  building  dwellings  on  such  sloping  ground,  the  rock  was  quarried  out  in 
terraces  and  in  some  cases  rectangular  chambers  were  cut  back  into  the  solid  rock.  The  stone 
thus  obtained  was  used  for  the  town  wall  and  the  dwellings  and  in  some  places  for  making  up 
the  ground  to  form  a  level  terrace, 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 


5 


There  is  no  ancient  site  which  is  now  named  Adwa  or  Daw,  though  it  is  possible  that  the  Kelaa-t- 
name  Adda  may  be  a  corruption  of  the  ancient  form.  The  extensive  town  which  spreads  over 
an  isolated  hill  a  few  miles  to  the  south  of  the  well-known  temples  of  Abu  Simbel  is  locally  known 
as  Kelaa-t-Adda,  and  resembles  the  two  towns  already  described  in  its  strategical  position  as 
well  as  in  the  style  of  its  buildings.  It  is  therefore  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  is  the  third 
fortress  town  of  the  province  of  Maris,  for  there  is  no  other  ruin  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  put  ■ 
in  the  same  category  with  Ibrim  and  Begrash.  The  hill  upon  which  the  town  was  built  stands 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  quite  close  to  the  water's  edge,  and  it  is  very  steep  on  all  sides,  though 
a  long  spur  on  the  north  side  slopes  down  to  the  river  and  forms  a  sort  of  bay  between  it  and 
the  southern  part  of  the  hill  (Plate  3,  Fig.  a).  Perhaps  this  was  the  situation  of  the  port  to 
which  reference  is  made  by  Abdallah  ben  Ahmad  ben  Solaim.  A  narrow  roadway  leads  up  to 
the  town  along  the  spur,  which  was  defended  at  the  lower  end  by  strongly  fortified  towers.  The 
roadway,  which  is  stepped  in  places,  is  very  steep  and  winds  between  the  ruined  houses  which  are 
crowded  one  behind  the  other  on  the  sloping  ground.  The  interior  of  the  town  is  much  like 
Kasr  Ibrim,  though  it  lacks  the  fine  church,  for  the  only  ecclesiastical  building  now  standing  is  a 
ruined  church  of  crude  brick  standing  on  the  left  side  at  the  top  of  the  approach. 

On  the  northeast  side  of  the  town  there  is  a  projecting  rectangular  platform  built  up  with 
fine  ashlar  walls  which  seem  to  have  formed  the  stylobate  of  a  temple  of  Blemyan  date. 

The  ashlar  walling  makes  a  return  to  the  northeastern  angle  of  the  town  and  runs  for  some 
distance  along  the  east  side  of  the  hill.  At  the  southwest  comer  of  the  hill,  which  is  its  highest 
point,  there  are  scattered  fragments  of  granite  columns,  which  indicate  the  former  existence 
of  an  important  church.  There  is  also  a  much  battered  sandstone  capital  of  extraordinary  form 
lying  on  the  rock.  Four  large  smooth  leaves  form  the  square  faces  at  the  top  of  the  capital  and 
the  angles  of  the  abacus  are  supported  by  volute-like  brackets.  Many  fragments  of  interest  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  gully  lying  between  this  south  peak  of  the  rock  and  the  long  sloping  ridge,  and 
among  them  the  most  noticeable  are  some  broken  capitals  carved  in  red  sandstone.  These 
capitals  are  of  less  debased  form  than  the  one  to  which  reference  has  been  made  and  the  design 
is  almost  directly  derived  from  the  Ionic  Order. 

About  fourteen  miles  to  the  south  of  Kelaa-t-Adda  is  the  modern  administrative  boundary  The  District 
between  Egypt  and  the  Sudan,  which  crosses  the  river  to  the  south  of  the  village  of  Addendan  ^^Ji^a^i- 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile.    Just  at  this  point  two  or  three  islands  divide  the  stream — the  two  Adda  and 
largest  at  the  present  day  being  the  island  of  Addendan  in  Egypt  and  the  island  of  Faras  on  the  ^^^(^^act^ 
Sudanese  side  of  the  boundary.    But  in  the  past  the  richly  cultivated  land  on  the  west  bank 
where  is  the  cluster  of  villages  collectively  called  Faras  also  formed  an  island  which  must  have 
been  the  most  important  of  the  group  judging  from  the  ruins  of  ancient  buildings  which  were 
erected  on  it.    The  geography  of  this  district  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  treated  in  a  separate 
chapter. 

In  the  various  extracts  published  by  Ouatremere  there  are  several  other  places  mentioned  in 
this  province,  though  none  of  them  of  such  importance  as  the  three  fortresses.  At  the  foot  of  the 
second  cataract  there  was  a  monastery  dedicated  to  SS.  Michael  and  Kosma  according  to  Abu 
Selah.*  and  there  are  references  to  the  island  of  S.  Michael  by  other  authorities.  On  the  second 
island  of  the  cataract  from  the  north  end,  there  stands  the  ruin  of  a  large  monastery,  which 
unfortunately  is  much  encumbered  by  a  fort  built  during  the  dervish  troubles.  This  island  is 
called  Meilnarti  (Meil  =  Michael  (?),  arti=: island)  by  the  natives  of  to-day,  so  that  it  may  be  the 
site  of  the  historic  monasterv. 


*Au  rapport  d'Abou-Selah,  Bedjrasch,  capitale 
du  Maris,  est  une  ville  bien  batie  et  fort  peuplee. 
A  I'entree  de  la  province  de  Makorrah  est  un  mon- 
astere  sous  I'invocation  de  Safanouf,  roi  de  Nubie. 
II  est  place  au  pied  de  la  seconde  cataracte.  Le 


monastere  de  Mikail  et  Kosma,  est  fort  vaste.  On 
y  voit  un  sycomore  qui  indique  chaque  annee  le 
moment  de  la  crue  et  de  la  baisse  des  eaux  du  Nil. 
(Quatremere,  Vol.  II,  pp.  31,  32.) 


6 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


The  District  The  Monastery  of  Daira  is  also  noted  by  Abu  Selah  in  connection  with  a  temple  near 
Kelaa-t-  which  stands  "between  two  high  mountains,"*  a  description  which  is  not  clear — though  it 

y4<yt/a  and     is  possible  that  the  Temple  of  Abu  Simbel  may  be  intended.    The  same  authority  also  mentions 
Cataract       Bawsaka,  the  residence  of  the  Lord  of  the  Mountain.    This  statement  taken  into  consideration 
with  the  fact  that  there  were  many  churches  at  Bawsaka,!  has  led  the  author  to  believe  that  the 
ruins  of  Faras  represent  this  ancient  town.    However,  there  may  be  other  sites  yet  undiscovered 
to  which  this  description  would  apply. 

Slight  additional  evidence  is  given  in  favour  of  this  theory  by  the  same  historian's  reference 
to  the  monastery  of  Abu-jeras,  the  residence  of  a  bishop,  which  was  built  "on  the  mountain  of 
Zidan  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river,"  for  the  only  site  which  would  suit  this  description  is  the 
cluster  of  ruins  called  Wiss,  situated  some  two  kilometres  from  Faras.  If  this  is  indeed  the 
monastery  mentioned  the  resident  bishop  must  have  held  the  see  of  Bucoras,  (unless  Abu- 
jeras  and  Bucoras  are  synonymous,)  for  an  encyclical  letter  in  Coptic  mentions  seven  bishoprics  in 
the  kingdom  of  Makorrah.  namely,  Korta,  Ibrim,  Bucoras,  Dongola,  Sai.  Termus  and  Suenkur. 


*Pres  du  monastere  de  Daira,  est  un  berba 
place  entre  deux  montagnes  elevees.  Bawsaka 
est  une  ville  belle,  florissante,  et  qui  a  une  nombreuse 
population.  On  y  voit  quantite  d'^glises,  et  un 
monastere  sous  I'invocation  de  S.  Schenoudi. 
Cette  ville  etoit  la  residence  du  Seigneur  de  la  mon- 
tagne,  auquel  George,  fils  de  Zakarie,  fit  cr^ver 
ess  yeux.  C'est  la  que  fut  arrete  prisonnier 
Abou-Rakwah  al-Walid  ben  Hescham,  au  mois  de 
Reby-al-awal,  de  I'an  397.  Pres  de  cette  ville  est 
une  mine  d'or.  Sur  la  montagne  de  Zidan,  du 
cote  de  I'occident,  est  le  monastere  d'Abou-djeras, 


situe  dans  une  belle  ville,  qui  est  la  residence  d'un 
eveque.    (Quatremere,  Vol.  II,  p.  32.) 

fDans  la  Nubie,  dit  Vansleb,  il  y  avoit  autrefois, 
selon  le  meme  manuscrit  ci-dessus  c\t€  (une  lettre 
encyclique,  en  langue  copte,  publiee  par  le  pere  Bon- 

I     jour),  trois  provinces  divisees  en  dix-sept  eveches. 

I  Dans  la  province  de  Maracu,  il  y  en  avoit  sept, 

I     qui  etoient:  1°  Celui  de  Korta,  2°  d'Ibrim,  3°  de 
Bucoras,  4°  de  Dunkala,  qu'on  prononce  Dungala, 

j     5°  de  Sai,  6°  de  Termus,  7°  de  Suenkur. 

{Note:  Maracu — name    given    in    the  Coptic 

I     texts  for  Makorrah.)     (Quatremere,  Vol.  II,  p.  36.) 


CHAPTER  II 


NUBIAN  CHURCH  CONSTRUCTION 

Before  proceeding  to  particular  descriptions  of  the  churches  of  the  district,  it  would  be 
well  to  give  a  slight  review  of  the  general  methods  of  planning  and  construction  adopted  in  Nubia, 
and  in  order  to  appreciate  the  growth  of  the  distinctive  character  of  the  buildings,  a  consideration 
of  the  various  natural  and  social  conditions  is  essential. 

The  geographical  position  of  Nubia  has  played  a  most  important  part  in  the  determination  Geographical 
of  its  arts.    Placed  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  Empire,  it  formed  a  sort  ^^^ences'^^ 
of  buffer  between  the  Egyptian  civilization  and  the  semi-barbarism  of  the  black  races  of  the 
Nilotic  Sudan. 

It  would  not  be  to  our  present  purpose  to  dwell  upon  the  history  of  the  various  expeditions 
into  Nubia  organized  from  time  to  time  by  the  Dynastic  Kings  with  a  view  to  extension  of  territory, 
or  to  attempt  to  trace  the  influence  of  the  Egyptian  settlers  upon  the  native  arts.  But  it  is 
worthy  of  notice  that  the  Nubians  had  absorbed  much  of  Egyptian  culture  by  the  time  of  the 
founding  of  the  powerful  Meroitic  Kingdom,  and  that  at  a  later  period  they  were  affected  to  a 
considerable  degree  by  Hellenistic  art. 

During  the  first  period  of  the  Roman  Dominion  in  Egypt  part  of  Lower  Nubia  was  occupied 
by  military  garrisons,  but  from  the  year  297  a.  d.,  when  Diocletian  withdrew  his  forces  from 
Nubia  and  placed  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Roman  province  of  Egypt  at  Aswan,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  country  south  of  the  first  cataract  were  less  closely  in  touch  with  the  rest  of  the 
Roman  world,  except  for  the  short  period  between  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Nubia 
and  the  Mohammedan  conquest  of  Egypt. 

The  mission  sent  by  the  Empress  Theodora  about  the  year  540  a.  d.,  to  which  reference  has  The 
been  made,  must  have  had  considerable  influence  upon  the  development  of  architecture.    The  f^fluence^ 
principles  of  the  domed  structure  had  by  then  been  thoroughly  worked  out  in  the  eastern  Empire 
and  Byzantine  architecture  was  at  its  zenith,  Santa  Sophia  and  SS.  Sergius  and  Bacchus  at 
Constantinople,  and  much  of  the  Byzantine  work  at  Ravenna  having  been  completed. 

It  would  be  natural  therefore  to  assign  to  this  period  those  fragments  exhibiting  distinctly 
Byzantine  features  which  have  been  found  on  many  of  the  most  ruined  Christian  sites  in  Nubia. 
As  such  may  be  described  the  granite  capitals  from  Kasr  Ibrim,  one  of  which  is  in  the  Cairo 
Museum,  and  one  in  the  University  Museum,  Philadelphia,  and  the  fragments  of  marble  basins, 
etc.,  with  Greek  inscriptions,  which  may  be  seen  at  some  of  the  sites.  Also  the  large  granite 
columns,  the  fragments  of  string  courses  and  the  red  sandstone  columns  with  Attic  bases  and 
podia  worked  in  one  piece  which  litter  the  ground  close  to  the  large  fortress  at  Faras. 

Up  to  the  time  of  Justinian  the  Nubians  had  employed  methods  in  building  and  design 
similar  to  those  used  in  Egypt,  but  adapted  and  modified  to  suit  their  special  conditions. 

The  Mohammedan  invasion  severed  the  connection  between  Nubia  and  Byzantium,  and 
thus  from  the  year  640  a.  d.  the  traditions  of  building  developed  on  independent  lines. 

The  geological  condition  of  Lower  Nubia  was  a  strong  factor  in  determining  the  type  of  Geology  and 
structures,  the  soft  sandstone  of  which  the  desert  consists  was  easy  to  quarry  and  eminently  ^^^^^^^^^ 
suitable  for  coursed  rubble  walling;  but  it  was  the  river  mud  deposit  which  pla)'ed  the  most  stmction. 
important  part  in  the  formation  of  the  local  building  manner. 

(7) 


8 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


Geology  and  The  latter  material  is  most  admirably  suited  for  the  manufacture  of  crude  bricks,  in  the 
//r^'^"'^^  making  of  which  sand  and  usually  chopped  straw  were  used.  The  mud  was  sufficient  for  mortar 
Construction  and  when  mixed  with  dung  made  good  rough  plastering. 

The  granite  obtainable  at  the  second  cataract  was  but  Uttle  used,  the  other  materials  being 
far  easier  to  handle  and  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  builders. 

As  the  district  between  the  first  two  cataracts  is  almost  rainless  there  was  no  reason  to  find 
other  materials  for  roofing.    Vaults  of  crude  brick  sufficed  to  keep  out  the  weather  and  at  the  same 
time  preserved  an  equable  temperature  inside  the  building,  a  matter  of  importance  in  a  region 
where  the  variations  of  heat  and  cold  are  considerable. 
Brickwork  The  Nubian  church  builder  was  consequently  a  brick  craftsman  and  not  a  mason.    In  the 

and  W  alls,  gj-g^ter  number  of  buildings  in  which  stone  was  used  for  walling,  the  treatment  employed  was  the 
same  as  for  brick;  the  stones  were  small  in  size,  roughly  shaped  and  laid  in  mud  mortar,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  such  walls  were  plastered  with  mud  and  generally  whitened  with  lime- 
white.  The  bricks  used  for  walls  were  usually  larger  than  those  in  use  in  Europe  at  the  present 
day,  the  most  common  size  being  about  0.20  m.  by  o.io  m.  by  0.30  m.  The  walls  were  not  built 
with  any  very  scientific  bond  and  the  bricks  were  often  laid  almost  anyhow;  but  a  very  common 
arrangement  in  the  cases  of  both  single  brick  and  double  brick  walls  was  to  lay  alternate  courses 
of  headers  and  stretchers  and  occasionally  a  course  of  headers  on  end.  The  same  arrangement 
was  also  employed  for  walls  exceeding  0.65  m.  thick,  the  intervening  space  being  filled  with  brick 
ends  and  sometimes  chips  of  stone,  though  as  a  rule  these  thick  walls  were  built  entirely  of  stone. 

The  joints  were  wide,  owing  to  the  irregularity  of  the  bricks.    No  mortar  was  laid  in  the 
vertical  joints,  but  each  course  was  grouted  with  rather  wet  mortar,  a  method  which  is  employed 
in  the  district  at  the  present  day. 
The  Effect  of        The  intensity  of  the  sun  dispenses  with  the  need  for  large  openings  for  light  and  the  veriest 
upon  Design,  ^hts  are  preferable  in  habitable  rooms.    In  Nubia  a  large  window  has  a  double  disadvantage 
as  it  not  only  permits  direct  sunlight  to  pour  into  the  building,  but  also  admits  clouds  of  dust 
and  sand  whenever  the  breeze  is  strong.    The  Christians  employed  no  protection  against  these 
two  forces,  for  no  evidence  of  either  glazing  or  shutters  has  as  yet  been  found. 
The  Brick  The  most  characteristic  feature  of  all  Nubian  buildings  is  the  skew  vault,  which  had  been 

used  by  the  Egyptians  in  tombs  and  minor  buildings  from  the  earliest  times.  The  vault  from 
its  springings  often  rises  considerably  higher  than  the  semi-circle  struck  on  the  span,  the  proportion 
of  the  rise  to  the  span  being  on  an  average  about  3  to  5.  M.  Choisy  in  "L'Art  de  Batir  chez  les 
Egyptiens"  has  advanced  the  theory  that  these  vaults  were  set  out  by  the  aid  of  a  simple  device 
of  cords  to  a  true  catenary  form,  but  the  results  obtained  by  measurement  from  a  large  number 
of  ancient  and  mediaeval  examples  will  not  support  such  a  theory,  and  the  evidence  is  strongly 
in  favour  of  the  vaults  having  been  set  out  by  rule  of  thumb.  The  bricks  used  for  vaulting  var\' 
but  little  from  the  ordinary  walUng  bricks  in  size,  but  seem  to  be  slightly  harder,  owing  perhaps 
to  the  introduction  of  dung  into  the  mud.  A  key  was  generally  obtained  by  drawing  three  fingers 
across  the  wet  brick  on  a  curve  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  'frog.' 

This  system  of  vaulting  was  commonly  used  by  the  Byzantine  builders.  In  Egypt  and 
Nubia,  both  timberless  countries,  it  was  more  economical  than  any  other  method,  for  no  centring 
at  all  is  required  to  support  the  rings  of  brick,  each  unit  of  which  is  maintained  in  position  by 
the  adhesive  nature  of  the  mortar  and  the  friction  consequent  on  the  slope  of  the  bricks,  until 
the  ring  is  complete. 

Modern  The  writer  recently  had  the  opportunity  of  closely  watching  the  means  employed  by  the 

Vaulting.  naQj^grn  natives  of  Nubia  when  building  a  house  for  the  expedition  near  Wady  Haifa,  in  which, 
although  the  plan  was  designed  to  suit  European  requirements,  native  methods  of  construction 
were  employed.  The  manner  of  building  a  vault  proved  exceptionally  instructive,  and  the 
observations  made  during  the  progress  of  the  work  threw  hght  on  many  minor  problems 
connected  with  the  ancient  vaults. 


NUBIAN  CHURCH  CONSTRUCTION  9 

The  modern  process  of  vaulting  results  in  a  replica  of  the  ancient  vault  and  hence  a  description  Modem 
of  the  procedure  would  not  be  out  of  place.  When  the  side  walls  of  the  chamber  have  been 
built  up  to  the  springing  level,  one  end  wall  is  carried  up  to  a  height  a  little  above  the  level 
necessarv  to  cover  the  crown  of  the  vault,  and  is  often  roughly  shaped  to  the  curve  of  the  vault, 
if  there  is  no  second  story.  On  the  inner  face  of  the  wall  the  curve  of  the  vault  is  drawn,  either 
by  a  sharp  implement  or  by  means  of  a  little  mortar.  No  geometrical  method  is  adopted,  the 
actual  line  being  dependent  upon  the  eye  of  the  draughtsman  and  his  inherent  knowledge  of  the 
possibilities  of  his  material.  A  measuring  rod  is  sometimes  used  to  obtain  symmetry  in  the 
curve.  To  do  this  rough  setting  out  and  during  the  actual  construction  of  the  vault  the  builder 
stands  on  a  beam  stretching  across  from  wall  to  wall,  so  that  the  rise  of  the  vault  is  governed 
by  the  height  that  a  man  can  reach. 

Two  men  are  engaged  in  the  actual  vaulting  and  they  each  construct  one  half  of  each  ring 
of  bricks  independently,  meeting  in  the  course  of  the  work  at  the  centre.  Having  satisfied 
themselves  that  the  curve  set  out  on  the  end  wall  is  feasible,  and  that  both  sides  of  it  from  the 

centre  are  approximately  equal,  they  lay  a  belt  

about  0.25  m.  wide  of  the  plastic  mud  mortar 


which  is  made  up  with  cow  dung,  along  this  line. 
The  first  two  springers  of  half  a  brick  each  are 
set  at  an  angle  of  approximately  75  degrees  to  80 
degrees  to  the  horizontal  plane,  sloping  towards 
the  end  wall.  These  are  then  covered  with  mor- 
tar and  whole  bricks  are  laid  against  them,  the 
tops  of  which  touch  the  end  wall.  The  process 
is  carried  on,  each  course  starting  alternately 
with  a  whole  and  a  half  brick  so  as  to  break 
joint,  the  inclined  courses  successively  growing 
and  following  the  outline  traced  on  the  wall, 
until  at  last  a  complete  ring  is  formed.  The 
inclined  bed  upon  which  each  brick  is  thus  laid 
together  with  the  adhesive  nature  of  the  mortar 
overcome  the  natural  tendency  of  the  voussoirs 
to  slip  until  the  final  brick  is  in  place.  The  brick 
joints  are  wedged  on  the  extrados  with  chips  of 


stone  or  broken  pottery  to  prevent  the  mortar 

squeezing  out.  As  soon  as  two  or  three  of  these  rings  are  completed,  they  are  plastered  inside  and 
out  and  smoothed  with  the  hand. 

When  the  vault  has  reached  the  end  of  the  chamber  at  the  springing,  there  are  still  many 
courses  to  be  added  at  the  crown,  and  the  problem  of  how  to  finish  the  end  has  been  most  ingeni- 
ously solved  by  the  Nubians.  The  wall  at  this  end  is  left  built  only  to  the  height  of  the  springing 
until  the  vault  reaches  this  point,  when  it  is  raised  a  few  courses  sufficient  to  form  abutment  for 
another  ring  of  the  vault,  which  naturally  does  not  spring  from  the  former  level  of  the  side  walls 
but  takes  off  a  little  way  up  to  the  end  wall,  up  which  each  succeeding  course  creeps.  Thus 
the  builders  literally  build  the  end  wall  under  their  feet  as  the  vault  rings  require  to  be  heightened. 

There  are  two  common  features  in  the  form  of  these  mud  brick  vaults:  the  one  is  a  curious 
ploughshare  twist  and  the  other  a  slight  rise  in  the  crown  towards  the  end  at  which  they  were 
finished.  Both  of  these  are  capable  of  very  easy  explanation.  In  the  first  case,  as  there  is  no 
centring  employed  and  no  measurements  of  any  kind  are  taken  after  the  first  setting  out,  there 
is  difficulty  in  maintaining  the  exact  outline  for  each  ring,  and  further,  the  fact  that  two  men 
are  employed  in  the  actual  building  whose  visual  impressions  of  the  original  curve  do  not  exactly 
coincide,  tends  to  a  variation  in  outline. 


lO 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


V°uhin  "^^^  tendency  for  the  crown  of  the  vaults  to  rise  is  curious,  but  is  obviously  explained  by 

°  '  the  fact  that  the  underside  of  each  brick  at  the  crown  is  inclined  at  about  1 5  degrees  to  the  horizon 
and  that  therefore  in  order  to  keep  the  soffit  level  the  lower  edge  of  the  next  course  laid  has  to 
project  below  its  adjacent  edge — making  the  bearing  surface  less  than  the  area  of  the  brick. 
Fearful  lest  this  should  lead  to  catastrophe,  the  builders  are  apt  to  heighten  the  vault  by  a  fraction 
of  an  inch  at  each  successive  course.  As  a  natural  result  we  find  that  the  rise  is  greatest  where 
the  rings  of  bricks  have  the  most  slope. 
Uses  of  the  The  proficiency  attained  in  the  use  of  the  skew  vault  by  the  Nubian  builders  led  them  to 
Vault.  apply  it  to  purposes  for  which  it  is  not  so  well  suited  as  it  is  for  roofing.  Thus  we  see  it  constantly 
used  for  the  arcades  separating  the  nave  and  aisles  in  churches,  and  for  arches  over  doorways. 

The  scarcity  of  timber  for  forming  centring  undoubtedly  accounts  for  this  somewhat 
unnatural  use,  but  it  would  appear  that  some  wooden  structure  is  essential  to  take  the  place  of 
the  end  wall  which,  as  has  been  described  above,  is  found  necessary-  to  the  construction  of  the 
vault. 

In  the  case  of  the  arcades,  the  rings  of  bricks  are  arranged  sloping  towards  the  aisle  in  all 
those  cases  noted  in  these  pages,  consequently  a  simple  structure  of  planks  roughly  following 
the  outline  of  the  proposed  arch  and  shored  up  from  the  aisle  wall  is  all  that  would  have  been 
necessary  to  supply  the  abutment  during  the  btiilding  of  the  rings. 

The  aisle  vault  in  the  larger  churches  springs  immediately  above  the  crown  of  the  arcsde 
and  thus,  perhaps  accidentally,  supplies  a  force  to  counteract  the  natural  tendency  of  the  skew 
arch  to  collapse  under  vertical  loads. 

The  method  which  was  employed  in  a  ven-  large  number  of  cases  for  carrying  a  heavy  wall 
over  a  doorway  is  worthy  of  special  note.  The  opening  was  built  wnth  reveals,  the  wider  span 
being  covered  by  a  skew  arch.  Across  the  smaller  jambs  a  stone  lintel  was  placed  with  a  thin 
wall  above  it. 

An  examination  of  the  vertical  section  through  such  a  door  discloses  a  device  remarkable 
for  its  ingenuity  in  evading  the  need  for  any  timber  support.    The  jambs  of  the  door  having  been 

built  up  to  the  springing  level  of  the  arch  and  of  the  lintel,  which 
were  not  necessarily  the  same,  the  stone  lintel  over  the  narrower 
opening  was  put  in  position  and  a  wall  one  brick  thick,  was 
built  upon  it  to  the  height,  and  roughly  to  the  shape,  of  the 
extrados  or  upper  surface  of  the  proposed  arch.  This  wall 
formed  the  abutment  against  which  the  arch  was  to  be  built 
and  the  procedure  then  became  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  a 
vault.  The  deep  reveal  constituted  half  the  thickness  of  the 
wall  or  more,  and  thus  the  arch,  owing  to  the  distribution  of  the 
load  from  brick  to  brick  in  the  upper  part  of  the  wall,  carried 
all  the  weight,  and  the  lintel  remained  unloaded  save  for  the  small  filling  wall  or  tympanimi. 

From  this  review  it  will  be  evident  that  the  development  of  architecture  in  Nubia  was 
necessarily  determined  by  certain  definite  local  conditions.  Chief  amongst  these  were  the 
exigencies  of  the  climate  and  the  nature  of  the  material  used  in  building.  Thick  walls  and  small 
openings  were  necessitated  by  the  weakness  of  the  mud  brick,  and  they  were  also  required  to 
exclude  the  fierce  rays  of  the  sun  and  the  sandstorms  of  the  desert.  The  proportions  of  a  building 
were  limited  by  the  capacities  of  crude  brick,  the  dimensions  of  rooms  and  corridors  were 
determined  by  the  vaulting  capacity  of  the  skew  arch  or  the  dome  constructed  in  that  material. 

The  constructive  problems,  therefore,  that  Nubian  builders  were  called  upon  to  solve  were 
to  a  great  extent  problems  peculiar  to  the  Nile  Valley ;  but  with  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
a  form  of  edifice  became  necessary  which  should  serve  the  purposes  of  Christian  ritual.  This 
general  form  was  borrowed  from  countries  already  Christian,  the  prevalent  Eastern  conception 


Detail  of  Relieving  Arch 
over  Doorway. 


NUBIAN  CHURCH  CONSTRUCTION 


II 


of  a  sanctuary  secluded  from  the  public  gaze  being  maintained.  From  the  general  type,  however, 
a  distinctive  species  was  produced  in  conformity  with  the  needs  and  peculiarities  of  the  country 
and  the  people. 

The  plan  adopted  appears,  at  first  glance,  to  be  of  the  type  known  as  the  "Basilica  Plan,"  jhe  Nubian 
a  misnomer  given  to  the  type  of  building  most  suited  to  congregational  assemblies.  Church  Type 

The  adjective  employed  by 
the  Byzantines  for  a  long  church 
with  aisles  and  clerestory  was 
"  dromic, "  a  term  which  is  more 
fitting  than  "basilican,"  for 
there  is  but  small  connection 
between  this  type  of  building 
and  Roman  basilicas.  Although 
there  are  no  clerestories  in  the 
Nubian  churches  owing  to  the 
normal  arrangement  of  the  aisles 
in  two  stories  the  term  "dromic" 
is  well  adapted  to  them. 

The  type  of  dromic  plan 
adopted  by  the  Nubians  con- 
sisted of  a  nave  and  two  aisles 
separated  by  piers  and  arches, 
and  a  sanctuarv^  with  an  apsidal 
end."^  Two  small  chambers, 
probably  used  as  sacristies,  were 
situated  on  either  side  of  the 
sanctuary,  and  the  latter  was 
always  separated  from  the  body 
of  the  church  by  a  wall  with  an 
arched  opening  or  by  an  impos- 
ing arch  resting  on  columns. 
The  sanctuary  thus  seems  to 
have  been  considered  as  a  sepa- 
rate chamber,  a  treatment  which 
suggests  the  prevalent  Eastern 
idea  of  a  holy  place  apart  from 
the  more  or  less  public  space  in  a 
building  designed  for  purposes  of 
religious  ritual. 

The  entrance  to  a  church 
was  always  effected  from  the 
north  and  south  sides,  the  usual 
arrangement  consisting  of  a  door 
opening  into  each  aisle,  and  in 

the  case  of  the  larger  churches  the  doors  were  placed  opposite  the  western  bay  of  the  nave 
arcade.  There  is  no  evidence  of  a  western  entrance  in  any  of  the  churches.  The  doors 
themselves  were  small,  owing  to  the  limitations  of  material,  but  an  architectural  effect  was 


Plan  of  Church  near  Abu  Simbel. 


*Sometimes  square  on  plan,  but  covered  by  an  apse.      The  technical  name  for  the  sanctuary  is  Haikal. 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


V  ariations 
of  Essential 
Plan. 


sometimes  attempted,  usually  by  means  of  an  external  reveal  which  in  some  cases  was  further 
elaborated  by  stone  pilaster  strips. 

These  component  parts  of  a  church  appear  to  have  been  essential.  In  the  larger  churches 
there  is  an  addition  of  upper  aisles  or  galleries,  to  which  access  is  obtained  by  a  staircase,  generally 
placed  at  the  west  end  of  the  south  aisle,  in  an  enclosed  chamber.  A  room  was  built  at  the  west 
end  of  the  north  aisle  to  balance  the  staircase,  so  making  a  symmetrical  plan.  The  purpose  for 
which  this  room  was  used  is  not  clear,  no  objects  having  been  found  in  any  instance  which  will 
throw  light  upon  the  matter,  but  it  may  be  conjectured  that  it  was  used  as  a  sort  of  guest  chamber 
or  room  for  conversation  and  rest  by  those  members  of  the  congregation  who  had  come  from  a 

distance.  Further  weight  is  given 
to  this  suggestion  by  the  present 
use  of  such  chambers  for  a  similar 
purpose  in  the  Cairene  churches. 
Between  this  room  and  the  stair- 
case was  a  space  which  was  entered 
from  the  nave  by  a  wide  arched 
opening,  an  arrangement  very 
similar  in  appearance  to  the  dis- 
position common  in  those  western 
European  churches  which  have 
western  towers  and,  like  the  latter, 
may  have  been  used  as  a  baptistr\^ 
There  are  several  churches 
with  slight  variations  of  the  normal 
arrangement,  as  for  instance  those 
buildings  in  which  domes  were 
employed ;  a  method  of  construction 
which  necessitated  a  slight  modifi- 
cation of  the  plan.  The  dome  was 
in  reality  a  mere  incident  in  roofing 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  no  cruci- 
form arrangement  being  attempted. 

A  small  church  which  lies  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  river  a  few 
miles  to  the  north  of  Abu  Simbel 
was  noted  by  Mr.  P.  Glendinning 
in  the  spring  of  iqio.  His 
plan,  which  is  here  reproduced 
by  his  permission,  shows  a  building 
of  the  usual  type,  but  it  has  a  point 
barrel  vaults  the   church  is  covered 


/■«o  -So  o 
^  I  1  >  I 


Plan  of  Church  at  Figiranton. 


of  interest  in  the  roofing,  for  in  place  of  the  usual 
entirely  by  domes  or  domical  vaults.  In  this  respect  the  building  more  nearly  approaches 
the  type  found  in  the  desert  monasteries  and  the  monasteries  of  the  Natron  Valley. 
The  dome  over  the  central  bay  of  the  nave  is  of  elliptical  form  and  is  considerably  higher  than 
any  of  the  others,  but  there  are  no  openings  in  it  for  the  admission  of  light. 

A  wide  passage  behind  the  Haikal  connects  the  two  sacristies,  an  arrangement  which 
was  employed  also  in  the  dromic  church  at  Kasr  Ibrim,  but  not  in  the  other  churches  of  our 
district.  Further  South  however  this  feature  seems  to  be  common.  Thus  Mr.  J.  W.  Crowfoot, 
when  he  was  acting  as  Director  of  Antiquities  in  the  Sudan,  noted  a  small  church  at  Figiranton 


NUBIAN  CHURCH  CONSTRUCTION 


13 


about  fifteen  miles  south  of  Wady  Haifa,  and  his  plan,  which  he  has  kindly  granted  permission  Variations 

of  ^Lss0fiitci 

to  reproduce,  shows  a  passage  behind  the  Haikal.    The  plan,  but  for  thia  one  point,  is  very  pia^. 
similar  to  the  central  domed  church  at  Serreh  which  is  shown  on  PI.  30,  Fig.  a. 

The  foregoing  brief  summary  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Nubian  churches  and  their  con- 
struction is  sufficient  to  show  that  there  is  much  in  common  in  the  examples  quoted.  Not  only 
have  the  materials  and  the  climate  tended  to  bring  about  this  uniformity,  but  the  ritual  must 
certainly  have  had  a  great  influence  in  standardizing  the  arrangement. 


/ 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  CHURCH  NEAR  DEBEREH 

The  first  church  which  was  excavated  and  cleared  for  study  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river  opposite  the  centre  of  the  modem  village  of  Debereh,  some  nine  miles  north  of  the  railway 
terminus  at  Haifa.  It  has  been  chosen  as  the  first  example  for  description  because  the  plan 
embodies  all  the  features  common  to  the  larger  churches  in  the  district,  and  sufficient  of  the 
structure  remains  to  show  the  original  design  of  the  building.  From  the  photographs  of  the 
interior  a  good  impression  may  be  obtained  of  the  general  arrangement  of  all  the  dromic 
churches  in  Nubia. 

The  Site.  The  situation  of  the  church  is  curious,  for  there  are  now  no  habitations  near  it,  nor  does  it 

seem  possible  that  the  country  for  two  miles  in  either  direction  along  the  river  bank  could  ever 
have  supported  a  community  however  small.  But  it  is  possible  that  the  river  may  have  shifted 
its  course  and  come  nearer  to  the  site,  sweeping  away  the  foreshore  of  rich  mud  deposit  and 
building  up  fresh  land  on  the  opposite  bank.  Such  changes  are  of  constant  occurrence  throughout 
the  Nile  Valley,  and  in  greater  or  lesser  degree  occur  with  each  annual  flood,  so  that  not 
infrequently  what  was  last  year  a  fertile  bank  will  this  year  be  a  navigable  channel. 

The  church  stands  just  at  the  mouth  of  a  slight  depression  which  stretches  back  from  the 
river  through  an  extensive  plateau  of  sandstone.  The  general  level  of  the  plateau  is  about  twenty 
metres  above  the  average  high  level  of  the  river,  and  it  is  at  this  point  over  a  mile  wide  from  the 
bank  to  the  rugged  hills  which  skirt  the  great  Western  Desert.  This  plain  is  continuous  through- 
out the  district,  diminishing  to  nothing  at  the  second  cataract  on  the  south  and  at  the  hills  of  Wiss, 
between  Faras  and  Abu  Simbel,  on  the  north. 

The  ruin  is  barely  two  hundred  metres  from  the  river  and  is  built  on  the  north  side  of  the 
depression,  which  was  doubtless  the  course  of  some  stream,  long  since  dry,  caused  by  heavy 
rains  in  the  hills.  Between  the  church  and  the  river  the  old  watercourse  splays  out  to  a  greater 
width,  and  on  either  side  of  it  and  near  to  the  river  there  are  some  fallen  crude  brick  structures — 
probably  dwelling  houses  contemporary  with  the  church.  Close  to  these  are  two  or  three  tamarisk 
cltunps  and  mounds  formed  of  sand  and  tamarisk  peat. 

To  the  north  of  the  site  in  two  or  three  clearly  defined  groups  are  numerous  graves,  and 
much  scattered  pottery  of  Christian  date. 

About  a  mile  and  a  half  down  stream  from  the  church,  there  is  the  ruin  of  a  structure  of 
contemporary  or  sHghtly  earlier  date,  which  is  too  dilapidated  in  condition  for  its  use  to  be 
conjectured,  though  it  may  be  noted  that  a  staircase  stands  up  prominently  at  the  southwestern 
angle.  The  ruin  is  situated  almost  on  the  bank  of  the  river,  and  is  surrounded  by  an  extensive 
group  of  tamarisk  mounds. 
Orientation  The  axis  of  the  church  was  set  out  roughly  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  river  bank,  and 
of  Church.  actual  magnetic  direction  of  the  south  arcade  was  134°  when  the  notes  were  made  in  February, 
1908.  As  most  of  the  churches  seem  to  have  been  built  with  such  rough  and  ready  orientation, 
it  is  obvious  that,  owing  to  the  winding  of  the  foreshore,  the  axis  is  often  far  from  being  east 
and  west;  but  for  purposes  of  description  it  is  sufficiently  accurate  to  refer  to  the  sanctuarv' 
as  being  at  the  east  end  of  the  building  and  to  the  other  parts  in  accordance. 

The  church  at  present  under  consideration  forms  approximately  a  rectangle  which  measures 

(14) 


THE  CHURCH  NEAR  DEBEREH 


15 


16.50  m.  by  12.00  m.    Its  external  walls  are  built  of  small  blocks  of  sandstone  in  regular  courses  Orientation 
to  a  height  of  about  4.25  m.  on  the  north  and  west  sides  and  2.75  on  the  east.    The  south  wall  of  Church. 
is  almost  razed  to  the  ground,  but  it  must  have  been  similar  to  that  on  the  north  side.  Above 
the  stonework,  which  was  laid  in  mud  mortar,  the  walls  were  carried  up  in  crude  brick,  a  slight 
external  offset  marking  the  change  of  material. 

The  only  entrances  to  the  church  were  the  two  small  doors  on  the  north  and  south  sides 
which  opened  into  the  aisles  opposite  the  western  bay  of  the  arcades. 

A  reference  to  the  plan  on  PI.  8  will  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  arrangement  of  the  church,  and  Composition. 
the  curious  contrivance  by  which  the  internal  apse  is  obtained  without  excessive  waste  of  material 
can  be  seen. 

The  church  is  composed  of  Haikal,  Nave  and  Aisles,  two  sacristies,  and  the  usual  western  bay 
to  which  reference  has  been  made  in  Chapter  II,  which  leads  to  the  staircase  at  the  southwest 
corner  of  the  building  and  to  the  chamber  at  the  northwest  comer.  The  clearly  defined  side 
chapels,  which  are  so  common  in  the  churches  of  Cairo  and  North  Egypt,  are  entirely  lacking. 

The  Haikal  is  about  3.75  m.  wide  and  4  m.  in  greatest  length.      The  floor  was  the  jhe 
natural  rock,  but  levelled  and  raised  in  places  by  a  sort  of  concrete  consisting  of  pebbles  and  Sanctuary. 
mud.    The  apsidal  end  only  approximates  to  the  semi-circle  and  must  have  been  set  out  alm.ost 
entirely  by  eye.    The  walls  of 
the  Haikal,  as  in  the  other  parts 
of  the  building,  were  carried  up 
in  coursed  rubble  and  mud  mor- 
tar for  some  considerable  height. 
At  3.40  m.  above  the  floor  there 
is  a  course  of  header  bricks  laid 
projecting  about  a  centimetre 
beyond  the  face  of  the  wall  and 
from  this  course   the  domical 
vault  springs,  which  was  started 
against  the  east  wall  with  a  ring 
of  bricks  consisting  of  five  units 
rising  about  0.50  m.  and  span- 
ning about  a  metre.    Each  con- 
secutive ring  added  during  con- 
struction naturally  had  a  wider  span,  and  in  consequence  rose  to  a  greater  height,  since  the 
area  to  be  vaulted  was  semi-circular,  though  in  actual  practice  the  ratio  of  span  to  rise  was  not 
kept  constant  and  the  vault  was  depressed;  thus  the  height  was  prevented  from  becoming 
excessive  at  the  start,  and  so  the  disaster  which  would  naturally  occur  unless  the  lower  end  of 
the  vault  was  heavily  loaded  was  obviated. 

Two  narrow  doors  with  arched  heads  lead  into  the  sacristies,  but  that  on  the  north  side  has 
been  walled  up  to  a  height  of  i.io  m.,  forming  a  sort  of  hatchway.  Just  to  the  west  of  these 
doors  on  either  side  an  arched  opening  leads  into  the  eastern  end  of  the  aisles. 

A  Tribune  occupies  the  circular  part  of  the  Haikal  to  the  east  of  the  sacristy  doors.  This  is  The  Tribune 
built  up  in  crude  brick  and  plastered  with  mud,  and  it  consists  of  five  steps  rising  to  i.io  m. 
above  the  floor  with  a  raised  central  seat  0.02  m.  above  the  top  step.  Above  the  tribune 
are  three  niches,  stone  lintels  forming  the  heads,  arranged  symmetrically,  The  use  of  these 
niches  has  been  made  clear,  since  in  one  of  the  churches  at  Faras  (F.  2)  a  crude  form  of  stand 
for  a  lamp  made  of  mud  was  found  in  one  of  them  and  the  lintel  above  was  smoke  blackened. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  the  three  niches  were  symbolic  of  the  Trinity,  and  the  constant 
occurrence  of  the  three  is  in  favour  of  the  theory. 


Apse,  of  Jmmtt.ircv/*r  /o»" 


Construction  of  Apse  Vault. 


i6 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


Eastern 
End. 


Nave. 


Piers  and 
Walls. 


The  Nave 
Vault. 


Arch  of 
Triumph. 


Capitals. 


The  Screen 
Wall. 


Pulpit. 


The  photograph  of  the  interior  (PL  4,  Fig.  b)  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  east  end  very 
clearly,  but  might  give  the  impression  that  an  east  window  existed  over  the  central  niche.  A 
careful  examination  proves  that  this  was  not  the  case,  but  that  the  lintel  of  the  niche  gave  way 
or  was  removed,  and  in  consequence  the  wall  above  it  fell  out.  There  is  no  evidence  of  an  east 
window,  or  indeed  of  any  direct  light  into  any  part  of  the  nave  or  sanctuan^  in  any  of  the  churches 
studied,  with  the  exception  of  those  which  have  domes  supported  on  drums. 

The  nave  is  about  8.25  m.  long  and  3.75  m.  wide,  but  it  is  far  from  being  rectangular 
for  there  is  nearly  half  a  metre  variation  between  the  two  diagonals.  The  arcade  walls  separating 
the  nave  from  the  aisles  are  i.iom.  thick  on  the  north  side  and  1.15m.  on  the  south  side,  and  the 
arched  openings  are  considerably  less  in  width  than  the  piers;  but  the  design,  which  appears  at 
first  sight  to  be  excessively  clumsy,  is  not  altogether  out  of  proportion  to  the  necessity,  for  the 
weight  of  the  superimposed  walls  and  vaults  is  considerable  and  the  mate^rials  are.  not  suitable 
to  economic  construction.  The  piers,  which  measure  roughly  i.io  m.  by  1.35  m.,  are  built  of 
rough  sandstone  carefully  coursed  to  a  height  of  1.80  m.,  and  at  this  level  the  arches  spring. 
The  arches  are  built  skew  in  the  usual  manner  and  rise  to  a  height  of  2.30  m.  above  the  floor. 
At  2.85  m.  above  the  floor  the  stone  walling  leaves  of?  and  above  this  point  the  walls  are  carried 
up  in  brick  for  six  courses.  A  course  of  headers  projecting  about  a  centimetre,  similar  to  that  in 
the  Haikal,  accentuates  the  fact  that  the  wall  above  oversails  for  the  eight  next  courses  in  order 
to  reduce  the  span  of  the  main  vault. 

Nothing  is  left  of  the  nave  vault  but  the  indication  of  its  springing,  and  that  only  for  a  short 
distance.  Three  openings  on  each  side  of  the  nave  communicated  with  the  upper  stories  over  the 
aisles.  These  windows  can  have  been  little  else  than  peep-holes  and,  in  spite  of  the  deeply  splayed 
sills,  very  little  view  of  the  nave  can  have  been  obtained  through  them. 

The  nave  was  separated  from  the  Haikal  by  an  arched  wall  which  w^as  further  marked  by 
columns  set  in  reveals.  This  structure  is  generally  called  the  Arch  of  Triumph,  and  is  to  be  found 
in  all  the  larger  churches. 

The  columns  to  this  arch  were  monoliths  of  red  sandstone  worked  to  a  fine  surface  by  hand, 
and  the  part  towards  the  angle  of  the  reveal  was  not  finished  to  a  fine  surface.  Parts  of  them 
were  found  in  the  church,  but  much  has  been  destroyed;  the  largest  piece,  which  is  1.75  m.  long 
and  0.34  m.  diameter,  was  found  in  the  south  aisle.  The  base  upon  which  the  column  on  the 
north  side  rested  remains  in  position;  it  is  worked  only  on  the  two  sides  showing,  which  are 
0.37  m.  wide  and  about  0.25  m.  high.  Above  the  square  part  a  circular  disc  0.35  m.  diameter  and 
0.02  m.  high  is  worked  to  receive  the  foot  of  the  coliimn.  The  capitals  of  these  columns  are  both 
remaining,  though  one,  which  was  to  fit  a  column  0.25m.  diameter  at  the  necking,  is  in  a  very 
battered  condition.  The  one  illustrated  (PI.  6,  Fig.  a)  is  of  good  if  rather  simple  design.  The 
departure  from  the  Classic  design  is  very  marked,  for  the  treatment  is  more  suggestive  of  Western 
Romanesque  work  than  Byzantine.  It  is  0.31  m.  in  diameter  at  the  necking,  and  about  0.45  m. 
in  height. 

Between  the  columns  there  was  a  low  wall  of  crude  brick  0.70  m.  high  with  an  opening  0.62  m. 
wide  in  the  centre.  This  wall  apparently  formed  the  base  for  the  screen,  which  must  have 
stretched  from  column  to  column.  The  colimms  were  too  much  damaged  to  ascertain  the  height 
of  the  screen,  though  on  one  of  the  pieces  a  sinking  is  evident  in  which  a  beam  had  rested. 

Advantage  was  taken  of  the  uneven  surface  of  the  rock  to  obtain  a  rise  in  floor  level  by  a 
step  0.08  m.  high,  which  was  made  up  with  brick  and  mud  mortar,  from  the  nave  into  the  Haikal. 

Placed  against  the  eastern  pier  of  the  north  arcade  there  is  a  small  platform  built  of  crude 
brick  0.78  m.  high  and  about  0.90  m.  square,  and  along  the  east  side  of  it  a  low  parapet  wall  runs 
with  a  short  return  on  the  south.  This  parapet  is  only  two  or  three  centimetres  high,  but  it 
may  have  stood  to  a  greater  height  or  may  have  formed  a  seating  for  a  wooden  rail.  The  plat- 
form is  approached  by  three  brick  steps  on  the  western  side,  making  four  risers  in  all  of  about 


THE  CHURCH  NEAR  DEBEREH 


17 


0.20  m.  each.  This  structure  forms  a  sort  of  ambo  or  pulpit,  but  it  looks  like  an  inversion  of  the 
ordinan,^  pulpit  of  European  Christendom  and  is  more  like  the  mimbar  used  in  Mohammedan 
mosques. 

The  western  bay  opening  out  of  the  nave  isabout  1.90  m.  wide  and  2.50  m.  long.  An  arched  The  Western 
dooHA^ay  with  reveals  opens  on  to  the  staircase  on  the  south  and  a  similar  doorway  on  the  other 
side  leads  to  the  western  chamber.  The  actual  measurements  of  the  latter  are  0.82  m.  wide, 
1.80  m.  floor  to  spring  and  2.12  m.  to  the  underside  of  the  arch.  There  are  three  square-headed 
niches  in  this  bay,  each  about  i.o  m.  high  and  i.io  m.  from  the  ground,  one  in  the  centre  of  the 
west  wall  and  one  next  to  the  door  in  each  side  wall.  The  actual  springing  of  the  vault  to  the 
bay  is  2.25  m.  above  the  floor  and  rises  to  a  height  of  3.15  m.,  but  there  are  three  oversailing 
courses  below  the  springing.  The  west  wall  of  the  nave  was  carried  across  the  bay  directly  on 
the  vault,  but  owing  to  the  large  opening  in  the  wall  above  very  little  weight  was  thrown  on  the 
vault,  and  further  to  relieve  the  crown  a  small  relieving  arch  of  seven  bricks  was  built  in  the 
thickness  of  the  wall  under  the  window,  thus  distributmg  the  load  on  to  the  haunches  of  the 
vault.  A  single  window  0.58  m.  wide  and  2.60  m.  above  the  floor  occupied  the  upper  part  of 
the  west  wall  of  the  bay  over  the  niche,  but  it  had  been  bricked  up  at  an  early  date.  This  seems 
to  have  been  the  only  means  of  admitting  direct  light  into  the  body  of  the  church. 

The  south  aisle  is  so  ruinous  in  condition  that  little  remains  to  be  noted  beyond  the  fact  ji^g  Aisles. 
that  its  outer  walls  and  general  arrangement  are  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  north  aisle,  which 
is  fairly  intact.  The  total  length  of  the  north  aisle  is  8.70  m.,  and  it  is  thus  longer  than  the 
nave  by  the  one  bay  which  leads  from  the  Haikal.  The  vault,  which  spans  the  width  of  about 
1.70  m.,  springs  2.65  m.  above  the  floor  and  rises  to  an  average  height  of  3.48  m.  A  low  brick 
wall  0.70  m.  high  cuts  off  the  eastern  part  of  the  aisle,  leaving  a  passage  only  0.40  m.  wide  on  the 
south  side.  This  wall  is  in  line  with  the  main  screen  and  suggests  that  the  eastern  part  of  the 
aisle  was  screened  off  as  a  side  chapel,  but  the  space  so  reserved  is  but  1.15  m.  by  1.60  m.  and 
in  consequence  would  allow  but  little  space  for  an  altar. 

The  two  entrances  to  the  church  are  situated  at  the  western  ends  of  the  aisles,  close  to  the  Entrances. 
main  west  wall  of  the  nave.  Both  of  these 
doorways  are  broken  down,  but  the  northern  is 
in  the  best  state  of  preservation.  It  is  0.90  m. 
wide  and  has  external  reveals  about  0.25  m. 
each  way  into  which  flat  pilaster  strips  of 
finely  dressed  sandstone  were  set.  These  pilas- 
ters are  0.26  m.  wide  and  c.15  m.  deep  and 
were  so  set  as  to  narrow  the  doorway  to  0.75  m. 
wide.    The  stone  lintel  with    an  intricate 

cross  design  carved  on  it  which  was  found  lying  across  the  sill,  must  have  been  supported  on 
these  pilasters.    The  dimensions  of  this  stone  are  1.21  m.  by  0.42  m.  bv  0.18  m. 

The  two  sacristies  are  slightly  different  in  actual  arrangement,  but  are  of  about  the  same  size.  Sacristies. 
The  northern  measures  2.40  m.  by  1.80  m.   and  the  southern  2.40  m.   by  1.90  m.  on  an 
average. 

A  door  in  each  case  leads  from  the  aisle  into  the  sacristy  and  there  are  also  openings  from 
the  Haikal  to  w^hich  reference  has  already  been  made.  The  northern  of  these  two  doors  from  the 
sanctuar}'  has  been  bricked  up  to  a  height  of  about  i.iom.  from  the  floor,  leaving  a  sort  of 
hatchway  above.  Inside  this  sacristy  and  against  its  south  wall  there  is  a  curious  arrangement 
of  low  brick  and  mud  benches.  The  lowest  of  these  is  0.06  m.  high  and  the  others  rise  o.io  m. 
and  0.12  m.  above  it.  A  return  bench  against  the  west  wall  is  0.04  m.  high.  The  bottom  of  the 
niche  in  the  south  wall  is  i.o  m.  above  the  floor  and  its  height  to  the  head,  which  is  formed  by 
a  single  slab  of  stone,  is  i.io  m. 


}  /^^^^^ 

1^ 

Lintel  to  North  Door. 


i8 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


The  South 
Sacristy. 


Northwest 
Chamber. 


Staircase. 


The  Upper 
Story. 


Date. 


The  vault  over  the  sacristy,  which  was  built  leaning  against  the  sanctuary  wall,  sprang 
from  a  height  of  2.70  m.  from  the  floor,  and  it  rose  to  a  total  height  of  3.65  m. 

The  south  sacristy  is  similar  to  the  former,  but  it  lacks  the  benches.  The  niche  which  has 
a  vaulted  head  is  1.55  m.  high  and  is  i.o  m.  above  the  floor.  A  low  parapet  wall  at  its  edge  is 
0.16  wide  and  0.04  high. 

This  is  the  only  chamber  on  the  ground  floor  of  the  church  which  has  any  direct  light. 
Although  the  outer  walls  are  destroyed  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  the  case  of  the  north  sacristy, 
there  are  the  lower  parts  of  two  window  openings  still  showing,  one  in  the  centre  of  each  wall. 
The  sill  on  the  south  side  is  1.35  m.  above  the  ground  and  the  width  of  the  window  was  0.60  m. 
The  sill  of  the  east  window  is  1.15  m.  above  the  floor,  and  the  width  was  0.57  m.  The  chamber 
was  vaulted  at  2.68  m.  above  the  floor,  and  its  roof  rose  to  a  total  height  of  3.62  m. 

The  northwest  chamber  of  the  church  is  almost  entirely  plain.  It  measures  about  2.0  m. 
by  3.20  m.  Its  floor  is  0.06  m.  above  the  level  of  the  western  bay,  and  a  step  about  0.15  m. 
above  this  level  forms  a  wide  sill.  The  springing  line  on  the  east  wall  at  2.30  m.  above  the  floor 
is  the  only  remains  of  the  vault.  In  the  west  wall  there  are  two  niches,  but  the  wall  is  broken 
down  a  little  way  above  their  sills,  which  are  x.15  m.  above  the  floor. 

The  staircase  which  balances  the  last  mentioned  chamber  has  been  much  destroyed.  A 
single  step  0.20  m.  high  leads  up  through  a  doorway  into  the  stairway  itself,  which  turns  contrary 
to  the  sun  round  a  central  pier.  The  steps  were  built  up  solid  for  about  the  first  metre  of  rise,  and 
then  were  carried  on  raking  vaults.  Two  narrow  windows  in  the  west  wall  lighted  the  lower  part 
of  the  staircase.  The  central  pier  is  standing  almost  the  whole  height  of  the  building,  but  the 
steps  have  mostly  disappeared;  though  enough  remains  to  show  that  the  ascent  must  have  been 
very  steep. 

The  upper  story  seems  to  have  been  divided  into  separate  chambers  with  communicating 
doors  corresponding  to  the  divisions  of  the  lower  floor.  There  was  a  gallery  over  the  western 
bay  with  a  wide  opening  into  the  upper  part  of  the  nave,  which  has  been  previously  mentioned. 
The  other  walls  separating  the  nave  from  the  upper  chambers  were  pierced  by  mere  slits,  three 
on  either  side,  which  had  deeply  splayed  sills.  Doors  at  the  end  of  both  aisles  led  into  chambers 
over  the  sacristies,  and  from  these  were  openings  communicating  with  a  passage  which  passed 
over  the  eastern  part  of  the  apse. 

The  vaults  of  the  galleries  followed  on  the  lines  of  the  lower  vaults,  but  they  had  wider  spans 
owing  to  the  method  of  construction  adopted  in  which  the  walls  were  narrowed  down  above  the 
springing  of  the  lower  vaults  by  the  width  of  the  seating  of  the  vaulting  bricks.  In  the  upper 
aisles  the  span  was  slightly  reduced  by  three  oversailing  courses  immediately  below  the  springing 
level. 

Very  httle  headroom  was  allowed  in  the  galleries,  for  the  springing  level  averages  about  4.80  m. 
above  the  general  ground  floor,  and  the  first  floor  is  3.65  m.  above,  which  only  leaves  a  height  of 
1. 15  m.  from  floor  to  springing,  and  the  actual  height  of  vertical  wall,  owing  to  the  oversaiUng, 
is  but  0.85  m.  Allowing  for  the  vault  being  of  normal  rise,  the  height  at  the  centre  would  be 
about  2.25  m.  at  the  centre  of  the  vault. 

The  remains  of  the  upper  stor\-  are  insufficient  to  show  the  methods  of  lighting  throughout 
the  gallery,  but  in  the  north  wall  of  the  church  there  are  three  windows  about  0.60  m.  wide 
opening  into  the  upper  north  aisle  and  their  sills  are  about  0.75  m.  above  the  floor  level.  A 
similar  treatment  was  probably  employed  on  all  sides  of  the  building. 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  discovery  of  the  stele,  which  is  mentioned  in  the  next  paragraph,  it 
would  have  been  difficult  to  assign  an  exact  date  to  this  building,  for  as  yet  little  is  known  of  the 
Nubian  Church,  and  the  objects  found  are  of  little  help  owing  to  the  fact  that  Coptic  potterv^  has 
never  been  studied.  Ancient  Egyptian  cemeteries  are  often  dated  on  the  evidence  of  a  few 
sherds  to  within  the  limits  of  a  dynasty  or  a  reign,  but  archaeologists  in  Egypt  too  often  neglect 


THE  CHURCH  NEAR  DEBEREH 


19 


those  places  which  are  scattered  with  slip-ware  painted  with  fish  and  crosses,  and  are  content  to 
assign  them  to  a  "Coptic  Period, "  in  which  they  refuse  to  be  interested. 

This  stele  was  found  lying  face  upwards  in  the  centre  of  the  Haikal.    Its  situation,  as  The  Stele. 
shown  on  the  plan,  suggests  that,  if  that  was  the  original  position  of  the  stone,  it  had  actually 
formed  part  of  the  altar.    But  in  such  a  position  the  inscription  would  not  be  legible,  and  it 
seems  more  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  stele  was  inserted  in  the  front  of  the  altar. 

Mr.  W.  E.  Crum  has  been  kind  enough  to  study  a  photograph  of  the  stone  and  has  made  the 
transcription  which,  together  with  his  translation,  is  published  below.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
date  given  is  745  "from  the  Martyrs,"*  which  corresponds  with  the  year  1029  of  onv  era.  As  it 
seems  clear  that  the  church  had  not  been  many  generations  in  use,  the  date  of  its  construction 
may  confidently  be  assigned  to  the  Tenth  Century. 


"Jesus  Christ,  Light  of  Life.  " 

"Through  the  providence  of  God,  the  governor  (817 /noupyd?)  of  the  whole  (world),  He  that 
said  unto  Adam,  the  first  man,  'Earth  thou  art,  to  earth  again  shalt  thou  return,' — even  thus 
did  the  deceased  (/xa/<apto9)  Peter  the  deacon  go  to  rest,  the  (spiritual)  son  of  Abba  George, 
the  bishop  of  Kourte.f  on  the  seventh  day  of  the  month  Epef  (in  the  year  reckoned.)  from  the 
Martyrs  745. J  And  (8e)  may  God  the  good  (dya^o?)  and  benevolent  (Lit.  man-loving) 
give  rest  (dvdTravcrL<;)  unto  his  soul,  in  the  heavenly  kingdom,  and  place  him  in  the  bosom  of 
Abraham  and  Isaac  and  Jacob,  in  the  paradise  of  joy,  whence  weeping  and  grief  and  sighing  do 
fly  away;  and  may  He  cause  the  good  archangel  Michael  to  watch  over  his  bones;  and  cause 
him  to  hear  that  blessed  voice  which  shall  say,  'Come,  ye  blessed  of  my  father,  and  inherit  the 
kingdom  that  hath  been  prepared  for  you  since  the  foundation  of  the  world.' 

L.  20  (Greek).  For  thou  art  the  rest  (di'dTraucrt?)  and  the  resurrection  (di/dcrrao"t9) 
of  thy  servant,  Peter  the  deacon,  and  unto  thee  we  send  up  praise,  unto  the  Father  and  to  the 
Son  and  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  now  and  for  ever  and  unto  the  ages  of  ages.  Amen."  (One  and  a 
half  lines  of  Coptic,  illegible). 

LIST  OF  OBJECTS  FOUND  IN  THE  CHURCH  AT  DEBEREH. 


In  the  North  Sacristy. 

1.  A  flat  pottery  lamp  0.13  m.  in  diameter,  on 

the  bench  by  the  door  to  the  Haikal. 

2.  A  fragment  of  pottery  with  a  black  design  on 

red  ground. 

3.  A  fragment  of  blue  glass. 

4.  A  fragment  of  green  glass. 

5.  Some  shapeless  fragments  of  jar  sealings  in 

clay;  no  marks. 

In  the  Haikal. 

6.  Half  a  blue  glass  bead  and  a  fragment  of 

greenish  blue  glass  near  the  south  column 
to  the  Arch  of  Triumph. 


7.  A  fragment  of  green  glazed  stoneware  in  Objects 

front  of  tribune.  found  in 

8.  A  circular  pottery  lamp  0.09  m.  in  diameter  ^^^'-^^'^^ 

near  the  passage  to  South  Aisle. 

9.  A  short  piece  of  a  copper  chain  in  the  passage 

to  North  Aisle. 
In  the  South  Sacristy. 

10.  A  shallow  bowl  of  buff  ware  about  0.12  m. 

diameter,  with  an  incised  cross  design 
inside  at  the  centre,  found  in  the  doorway 
to  Haikal. 

11.  A  broken  bowl  of  similar  dimensions  inverted 

over  the  former  of  buff  ware  with  traces  of 
a  painted  design  in  orange  upon  it. 


*i.  e.,  from  the  accession  of  Diocletian  in  284  a.d. 

tKourte,  presumably  the  Korteh  south  of  Dakkeh,  and  not  that  above  old  Dongola,  though  both  are 
far  distant  from  Debereh  {Cf.  Rec.  de  Trav.,'s.xi,  226).    It  is  known  as  one  of  the  Nubian  episcopal  sees. 

X'l-  e.,  A.  D.  1029.  Written  therefore  twenty-four  years  before  the  similar  stele  published  by  Steindorff  in 
Aeg.  Zeitschr.,  XLIV,  71. 


20 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


Objects 
found  m 
Church  at 
Debet  eh. 


13- 


14- 


i6. 


A  fragment  of  pottery  with  a  painted  design 
in  red  and  purple. 

A  shallow  bowl  of  orange  ware  with  a  black 
painted  rim.  In  the  centre  of  the  inside 
was  painted  a  black  cross  with  equal  arms. 

A  circular  discoid  jar  sealing  0.14  m.  diameter 
stamped  in  the  centre  with  a  square  divided 
into  four  squares  by  cross  lines. 

A  scrap  of  a  leather  book  cover  and  fragments 
of  parchment  leaves  in  the  niche. 

A  rough  burnt  clay  box  about  0.70  m.,  0.35  m. 
wide  and  0.30  m.  deep  with  design  of 
incised  lines  and  applied  bosses  on  the  out- 
side. 


In  the  Nave. 

17.  Small  fragment  of  green  glass,  probably  part 

of  a  circular  dish,  near  the  south  column 
to  the  Arch  of  Triumph. 

18.  Similar  fragment  behind  the  pulpit. 

19.  Two  fragments  of  bluish  green  glass  to  the 

south  of  the  pulpit. 

20.  Some  fragments  of  a  ferruginous  sandstone 

bowl  behind  pulpit. 


20.  Sandstone  Bowl. 

21.  Neck  of  a  bottle  of  blue  glass  with  a  white 
ribbed  design  upon  it  under  the  western 
arch  on  the  north  side. 


22.  Fragment  of  a  semi-opaque  glass  bottle. 

23.  Part  of  a  large  red  sandstone  bowl. 

In  the  South  Aisle. 


24- 


A  bowl  of  thick  red  haematite  ware  similar  to 
modem  ware.    It  is  0.19  m.  in  diameter 
o.  1 1  m.  high  and  has  a  base  ring. 

A  circular  sandstone  stamp  0.075  m.  diameter 
and  o.oi;m.  thick. 


•07s 


25.  Sandstone  Stamp. 

In  the  North  Aisle. 

26.  A  fragment  of  orange  faced  pottery  painted 

in  black. 

In  the  N.  W.  Chamber. 

27.  A  bronze  stylus  0.12  m.  long. 

28.  Fragments  of  a  bowl  of  bufi  ware  painted  in 

purple  and  red. 
Part  of  a  small  lamp  of  red  haematitic  pottery. 
An  iron  knife  with  a  plain  wooden  handle 

fastened  by  an  iron  ferrule  and  one  rivet. 
Fragment  of  buff  ware,  orange  slip,  painted  in 
purple. 


29. 
30- 

31- 


- 

Ni^A^-^  n^o^f^  "^Ce-M-TvCoy 

/wiW;>^<^J^  ^/»<— T-OVj)  <>'-£k  (  Co  c     A/\^eyi^b^   <0a^  X 

N^-rpg'^  c«-o-r^*^    N~T~e'C/*A.M  yv>./v^^K2>j;  i  »v.  fc-T-/«^ 

A^frr^i     -ruJ  — rc~/  yc-*  -roy 
^l^tuj   Or./ 1       ^/y^/  i0.i>-^(  S  €n  c  -royc 
>.(  -r-t-/  <\/     ^1  i^ry  <uJ  tJ    ,Kw*^  K.  a/      /I  €rr>  .... 

Krr-^.<^  .  .  .  .  n    Y   A<f-  ? 

Stele  from  Debereh  (from  photograph). 
(Mr.  Crum's  copy.) 


CHAPTER  IV 


FARAS 

There  is  much  to  interest  students  of  archaeology  in  the  large  district  of  Faras.  Monu- 
ments illustrating  all  periods  of  the  histon,-  of  Nubia  are  to  be  seen  there,  and  remains  of  buildings 
of  the  Christian  epoch  are  especially  remarkable.  In  order  to  appreciate  the  relative  importance 
of  the  various  sites  in  the  district  a  knowledge  of  the  geographical  features  is  necessary,  so  that 
a  short  description  of  the  locality  will  not  be  out  of  place. 
The  District  The  general  trend  of  the  river  is  in  a  northeasterly  direction  from  the  village  of  Aksheh, 
where  there  was  until  recently  the  ruin  of  an  Eighteenth  Dynasty  temple,  and  it  divides  into  two 
streams  at  the  island  of  Faras  which  is  called  Artekio  by  the  Nubians.  The  right  of  these 
two  branches  is  unnavigable  and  the  left  is  so  thickly  sown  with  treacherous  rocks  that  during 
low  Nile  it  becomes  a  rapid  \ery  difficult  to  navigate.  After  passing  the  island  the  river  sweeps 
past  the  collection  of  villages  situated  on  the  left  bank  which  form  the  Omdiah  of  Faras,  narrowing 
down  as  it  approaches  the  most  northern  of  them.  There  an  outcrop  of  sandstone  rock,  which 
forms  a  considerable  hill  on  the  right  bank,  restricts  its  channel.  The  cultivation  of  the  village 
of  Addendan,  the  most  southerly  district  of  Egypt,  commences  about  1500  metres  from  this 
outcrop,  on  the  right  bank,  but  the  bank  opposite  is  an  uneven  sandy  waste  as  far  as  the  ruined 
town  of  Wiss,  about  two  and  a  half  kilometres  from  the  sandstone  rock. 

At  Wiss  the  sandstone  hills  of  the  western  desert  approach  the  river  almost  to  the  water's 
edge  and  beyond  this,  the  stream  winds  through  a  maze  of  sandbanks  past  Kelaa-t-Addeh  to 
Abu  Simbel,  about  twenty-four  kilometres  or  fifteen  miles  distant  from  Faras. 

The  Nile  mud  deposit  at  Faras  stretches  back  for  a  width  of  one  and  a  half  kilometres,  a 
most  unusual  distance  for  Lower  Nubia.  On  this  wide  cultivable  plain  there  is  an  irregular 
range  of  sandhills  which  on  the  north  and  west  sides  shuts  off  the  cultivated  land  from  the  desert. 
The  sandhills,  which  at  places  attain  a  height  of  .^ixty  metres,  are  largely  formed  of  peat  from  tamarisk 
trees  and  the  arraq  plant. 

A  very  deep  hollow  in  the  sandhills  at  one  point  has  a  bottom  of  damp  mud  and  between 
the  hills  and  the  desert  plateau  the  river  deposit,  which  is  covered  with  sand,  lies  considerably 
below  the  level  of  high  Nile.  The  valley  thus  formed  continues  for  some  distance  up  and  down 
stream,  and  is  apparently  the  dry  bed  of  a  branch  of  the  Nile  which  at  some  period  diverged 
close  to  the  island  of  Faras  and  rejoined  the  main  stream  near  the  ruined  town  of  Wiss.  Thus 
the  land  upon  which  the  modern  villages  of  Faras  stand  was  an  island,  and  judging  from  the 
disposition  of  the  ruined  buildings  and  cemeteries  it  is  probable  that  the  left  branch  of  the  river 
was  in  existence  until  comparatively  modern  times. 
Disposition  On  the  sketch  map  (PI.  10)  may  be  seen  the  two  churches  marked  Fi  and  F2  which  aie 

Antiquities  biiilt  Upon  the  ledge  of  rock  overlooking  the  valley  and  about  one  and  a  half  kilometres  from  the 
present  river  bank.  To  the  northeast  of  these  lies  a  sort  of  tomb  chapel  and  the  whole  neigh- 
bourhood is  honeycombed  with  tombs,  but  the  author  was  unable  to  find  any  traces  of  habitation. 
On  the  right  bank  of  the  river  there  are  two  churches,  marked  Ei  and  E2  on  the  map,  with  an 
extensive  cemetery  close  to  them,  and  here  again  no  evidence  of  settlement  could  be  seen.  If 
the  present  cultivated  part  of  Faras  was  a-n  island,  the  distribution  becomes  perfectly  intelligible. 
The  habitations  of  the  living  were  on  the  island,  the  cemeteries  and  churches  on  the  mainland 

(22) 


FARAS 


23 


on  either  side.    It  may  well  be  that  the  churches  were  erected  as  tnbutes  to  some  departed  Dtsposuion 
,    .      .  ,    ,  .         ,     .      ,       ,       ,  1     1  1  11  ^  of  Christian 

ecclesiastics,  and  the  arrangement  of  tombs  m  the  churches  marked  r  i  and  r  2  would  support  Antiquities. 

this  theon-. 

The  desert  beyond  the  valley  stretches  uninterrupted  by  hills  for  several  miles  inland,  but 
at  the  lower  end  spurs  from  the  high  desert  extend  down  to  the  river,  and  a  narrow  gorge  has 
some  grottoes  cut  into  the  west  slope.  Some  of  these  grottoes  were  gallery  tombs  of  the  New 
Empire,  and  later  they  were  turned  into  chapels  and  dwellings  by  some  Christian  community, 
for  the  walls  are  covered  with  inscriptions  in  Coptic.  In  one  of  the  chambers  the  inscriptions 
are  arranged  in  panels  framed  by  red  lines  painted  in  the  rock.  Professor  MahafEy  and 
Professor  Sayce  made  copies  of  the  texts  in  1895.  They  consist  of  Apophthegmata,  Esaias,  the 
Exegete,  etc.,  the  opening  lines  of  the  Gospels  and  a  list  of  martyrs. 

The  most  striking  of  the  antiquities  at  Faras  is  the  large  fortress  which  stands  on  the  river  The 
bank  (PI.  11).  A  strong  enclosure  wall  strengthened  b}^  external  bastions  enclosed  an  area 
of  about  300  m.  by  180  m.,  but  much  of  it  is  now  destroyed.  The  wall  itself  is  built  of  ashlar  to  a 
height  of  4  m.  from  its  foundation,  above  which  it  was  carried  up  in  crude  brick.  Even  at  the 
present  day  it  stands  to  a  height  of  10  m.  at  one  part  near  the  western  angle  on  the  landward 
side.  On  that  side,  the  northwest,  the  length  of  the  wall  is  297  m.  and  its  thickness  4  m.  The 
four  bastions  are  about  7  m.  thick  and  project  about  7  m.  from  the  wall.    (PI.  ir.  Fig.  c.) 

At  each  end  there  are  foundations  of  square  external  comer  towers  about  10  m.  square  built 
of  sandstone,  many  of  the  blocks  of  which  have  been  taken  from  a  temple.  In  the  centre  of 
this  side  there  stands  the  remains  of  a  gatehouse  with  the  customary  side  entrance,  of  which  the 
lower  part  alone  remains.  The  inner  gateway  is  in  a  better  state  of  preservation  and  shows  an 
arched  doorway  on  the  outer  face  of  the  wall  with  imposts  of  the  usual  Egyptian  cornice  pattern; 
above  the  springing  four  stone  voussoirs  remain  in  position,  and  a  wide  fillet  in  very  low  relief 
is  worked  upon  them  to  do  duty  as  an  architrave.  On  the  third  voussoir  from  the  springing  on 
either  side  of  the  doorway  there  is  a  representation  in  low  flat  relief  of  some  animal,  presumably 
a  lion  (PI.  12,  Fig.  b).  The  inner  face  of  the  arch  is  plain.  The  passage  within  the  arch  through 
the  thickness  of  the  wall  is  slightly  wider  and  was  carried  up  to  a  greater  height,  but  there  is  no 
evidence  to  show  how  it  was  roofed. 

There  are  only  a  few  fragments  of  the  enclosure  wall  on  the  northeast  side  remaining,  but 
the  southwest  wall  can  be  traced  to  the  river  bank,  where  there  is  a  part  of  an  angle  tower  standing. 
In  the  centre  of  this  wall  stands  a  projection  which  may  be  a  gatehouse  similar  to  the  one  noted 
above.  The  wall  along  the  river  front,  if  there  ever  was  one,  has  entirely 
disappeared. 

Remains  of  a  deep  ditch  are  to  be  seen  on  the  northwest  side  of 
the  wall  and  about  twenty  metres  from  it.  Excavation  would  probably 
reveal  a  continuation  of  the  ditch  on  the  other  two  sides  of  the  enclos- 
ure, but  there  are  now  no  traces  of  it  visible  on  the  surface.  The  sides, 
which  are  built  up  in  crude  brick  and  plastered  with  mud,  are  vertical 
from  the  bottom  upward  to  a  height  of  about  two  metres,  the  upper 
part  sloping  at  an  angle  of  about  sixty  degrees  on  either  side.  There 
seems  to  have  been  no  flooring  laid,  or  any  foundations  for  the  Ijrick 
sides  of  the  ditch. 

On  the  same  side  of  the  enclosure  there  are  many  small  vaulted 
graves  of  late  Christian  date.    They  are  situated  round  and  over  the        Doll  from  the  Ditch, 
ditch,  being  constructed  in  the  actual  fallen  debris  of  the  wall.  Much 

damage  has  been  done  to  this  cemetery  by  the  natives  who  have  dug  among  the  mass  of  brick 
work  which  has  fallen  over  it  from  the  wall  in  order  to  obtain  sebakh  with  which  to  fertilize 
the  fields.    When  digging  to  a.scertain  the  depth  of  the  ditch,  a  broken  terra-cotta  doll  was 


24 


CHURCHES  IN  LO\\^R  NUBIA 


Date  of 
Fortress. 


Remains  of 
Temples. 


The  Citadel. 


The  Chapels 
in  the 
Citadel. 


found  which  had  evidently  come  from  one  of  the  adjacent  graves.  The  doll,  which  is  headless, 
measures  0.09  m.  in  height. 

The  existence  of  ruined  temples  of  the  New  Empire  and  Graeco-Roman  periods  shows  that 
the  site  had  been  long  and  continuously  inhabited.  The  fortress  wall  however  is  not  Egv-ptian 
in  character  and  must  be  dated  to  a  period  contemporary  with  the  Roman  Empire.  Potsherds 
of  Romano-Nubian  type  have  been  found  bedded  in  the  brickwork,  a  fact  which  proves  that  the 
construction  is  not  earlier  than  the  first  century^  a.  d.  Again,  that  it  cannot  have  been  built 
late  in  the  Coptic  period  is  proved  by  the  existence  of  the  cemeter\^  over  the  ditch  which  is  of 
course  part  of  the  same  scheme  of  fortification  as  the  wall.  The  great  wall  may  therefore 
reasonably  be  ascribed  to  the  Blemyan  period,  and  as  a  natural  consequence  the  citadel  also 
should  be  of  that  date.  An  examination  of  this  latter  structure  shows  that  it  was  occupied  in 
the  Christian  period,  as  indeed  it  is  at  the  present  day,  but  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  it 
was  not  built  in  pre-Christian  times.  From  its  general  appearance  and  structure  the  natural 
inclination  would  be  to  assign  this  building  to  the  same  date  as  the  similar  though  smaller 
example,  called  Karanbg,  near  Anibeh  (described  in  vol.  5  of  this  series). 

A  great  part  of  the  area  enclosed  by  the  fortress  walls  is  strewn  with  fragments 
of  fine  masonry  and  sculpture.  Many  blocks  also  which  are  now  incorporated  in 
the  citadel  must  have  been  taken  from  Egyptian  templec  of  which  the  outlines  are 
still  partly  visible  amid  the  litter  of  stone  and  rubbish.  Amongst  the  fragments  lying  on 
the  ground  were  to  be  noticed  cartouches  of  Thothmes  III  and  of  Rameses  II.  Some 
portions  of  a  cornice  were  of  Ptolemaic  work  similar  to  that  which  occurs  in  parts  of  Philae. 

To  actual  Blemyan  workmanship  however  must  be  attributed  some  fragments  of  a 
remarkable  stone  grille,  the  design  of  which  is  a  tracery  of  conventional  flower  stalks  bound 
by  ligatures  and  culminating  in  lotus-blooms,  the  centre  of  the  field  being  occupied  by  a  lion. 
Fragments  of  similar  patterns  were  found  in  the  church  F2,  but  their  date  is  closely  fixed  by 
work  of  the  same  style  discovered  at  Behen  and  at  Karanog. 

The  central  feature  of  the  fortress  at  Faras  is  most  remarkable,  and  one  is  instinctively 
reminded  by  it  of  a  Norman  keep  rising  up  from  amidst  its  girdle  walls.  The  portion  of  the 
biulding  which  is  at  present  visible  represents  but  a  small  part  of  the  original  structure,  for  the 
rubbish  thrown  out  by  successive  occupants  and  the  sand  which  has  drifted  around  have 
smothered  up  the  two  lower  floors. 

The  part  of  the  structure  which  now  shows  above  the  rubbish  is  an  irregular  bmlding  about 
55  m.  long  and  35  m.  wide,  but  some  parts  of  the  lower  story  undoubtedly  projected  beyond 
the  central  block,  for  there  are  wide  terraces  of  sand  and  rubbish  on  three  sides  of  the  building 
through  which  brickwork  shows  in  patches.  All  of  the  original  walls  seem  to  have  been  built  of 
crude  brick,  but  perhaps  excavation  would  show  a  base  of  ashlar  walling  as  at  Karandg.  Part 
of  the  upper  story,  which  is  now  inhabited,  has  been  extensively  rebuilt,  partly  in  brick  and 
partly  in  stone,  and  there  is  a  square  tower  or  bastion  on  the  northwest  side  which  was  carried 
up  to  some  considerable  height  to  serve  as  a  watch-tower  and  used  during  the  der\dsh  raids  into 
Lower  Nubia  as  a  signal  station  to  warn  the  villagers  of  the  approach  of  marauders. 

There  were  probably  four  stories  in  the  original  building  and  they  were  all  vaulted.  The 
total  height  must  have  been  over  twenty  metres. 

In  the  upper  story  of  the  castle  near  the  centre  of  the  southeast  side  there  is  a  small  chamber 
which  served  as  a  chapel,  for  there  are  traces  of  painting  on  the  walls  and  remains  of  a  small 
apsidal  vault  over  its  eastern  end.  The  paintings  represent  saints  or  apostles,  but  they  have 
been  too  much  obliterated  for  any  clear  impression  to  be  obtained.  Paintings  of  similar  type 
on  two  adjacent  walls  on  the  north  and  east  side  of  the  building  indicate  the  existence  of  another 
chapel.  Very  little  of  this  room  remains  in  its  original  condition,  for  the  walls  are  mostly  modem 
and  have  been  roughly  built  up  to  serve  as  a  sheep-pen. 


FARAS 


25 


About  fifty  metres  to  the  northwest  of  the  castle  there  stands  a  high  mound  of  sand  which  has  Mounds 
accumulated  around  a  crude  brick  building.    Only  a  few  walls  at  the  very  top  are  left  showing  ^^^^  i  a  e  . 
to  indicate  the  type  and  date  of  the  building,  but  these,  although  they  give  distinct  evidence 
of  Christian  occupation,  do  not  necessarily  date  the  foundation  to  any  particular  period.  The 
walls  are  of  crude  brick  plastered  with  mud  and  whitened,  and  two  of  them  have  a  finer  plaster 
coat  of  gypsimi  and  red  sand  with  traces  of  painting. 

A  similar  mound  to  the  south  of  the  castle  contains  a  brick  building  of  which  the  staircase 
stands  prominently  above  the  rubbish.  There  are  two  more  mounds  of  sand  to  the  north  of  the 
central  building,  but  there  are  no  actual  walls  showing  to  indicate  their  nature. 

To  the  west  of  the  castle  is  the  temple  site,  now  partly  covered  by  the  adjacent  mounds.  Remains  of 
and  to  the  south  of  this  the  ground  is  littered  with  sandstone  and  granite  fragments  of  Christian  churches 
date.    There  are  large  granite  columns,  podia,  carved  imposts  and  string  courses.    The  general 
character  of  the  remains  is  Byzantine  and  urjlike  the  later  developed  style  of  Nubian  church 
architecture. 

Just  within  the  southwest  of  the  enclosure  there  are  remains  of  a  church  of  similar  type, 
but  of  smaller  size  to  judge  by  the  relative  dimensions  of  the  columns.  There  is  less  rubbish  at 
this  site,  so  that  the  general  outline  of  the  church  can  be  distinctly  traced.  Excavation  would 
reveal  the  plan  almost  in  its  entirety. 

Much  pottery  and  traces  of  walling  reveal  the  existence  of  settlement  outside  the  fortress  wall 
principally  to  the  southwest  of  it.  The  accumulation  of  sand  is  so  great  that  it  is  impossible 
to  calculate  the  extent  or  character  of  these  buildings. 

About  330  m.  to  the  west  of  the  fortress  an  isolated  sandstone  rock  stands  prominently  above  Church  on 
the  cultivation.  This  seems  to  have  been  an  object  of  veneration  alike  to  pagan  and  Christian,  ^ocl^"^^'^'^ 
for  there  is  a  niche  in  memory  of  Setaw,  Governor  of  Ethiopia  under  Rameses  II,  cut  in  the  south- 
west side  of  it,  while  on  the  north  and  west  of  it  there  are  Coptic  tombs.  Part  of  the  eastern  side 
of  the  rock  has  been  artificially  levelled  and  on  this  a  church  was  built,  a  portion  of  the  south  wall 
of  which  was  hewn  out  of  the  solid  stone.  (PI.  12,  Fig.  a.)  The  outline  of  the  building  can  be 
traced  amid  the  debris,  which  has  become  a  sort  of  hard  mud  paving  now  used  for  winnowing 
com,  but  the  exact  disposition  of  its  parts  cannot  be  seen.  The  church  seems  to  be  of  the 
usual  dromic  plan,  but  there  were  probably  some  additional  chambers  at  the  western  end. 
A  passage  on  the  south  of  the  church  cut  out  of  the  rock  was  probably  vaulted  and  over  this 
passage  access  could  be  obtained  between  the  upper  part  of  the  building  and  the  top  of  the 
rock,  up  which  a  flight  of  roughly  hewn  steps  leads  from  the  north  side. 

One  part  of  the  church,  the  southern  half  of  the  apse,  stands  to  some  considerable  height, 
and  it  forms  a  very  striking  departure  from  the  normal  arrangement.  In  all  the  churches  seen 
by  the  writer  in  Lower  Nubia  the  apse  is  internal  and  is  not  expressed  in  any  way  on  the  exterior, 
but  in  this  one  example  the  apse  projected  to  the  east  beyond  the  rest  of  the  church.  Externally 
the  projection  was  rectangular  on  plan  and  had  niches  on  all  three  sides  close  to  the  angles. 
It  is  probable  that  this  one  exception  to  the  rule  was  caused  by  some  unusual  circimistances, 
and  one  cannot  but  feel  that  it  was  designed  in  order  to  take  advantage  of  a  projection  of 
the  rock  and  thus  obtain  additional  length  to  the  nave,  which  otherwise  would  have  been  incon- 
veniently short. 

About  450  m.  downstream  and  30  m.  from  the  river  bank  there  are  traces  of  numerous 
buildings,  some  of  considerable  size,  half  buried  in  the  sandhills,  and  around  them  there  is  scattered 
much  pottery  of  Christian  date. 

On  the  further  side  of  the  sandhills  about  200  m.  distant  an  extensive  cemetery  of  Romano-  TheRomano- 
Nubian  date  adjoins  the  modem  Mohammedan  burial  ground.    The  ancient  cemetery  occupies  cv^^/^y 
several  acres,  and  some  of  the  tombs  are  of  considerable  size.    A  certain  amount  of  this  area  has, 
at  some  time  or  other  been  put  under  cultivation  but  the  eastem  part  of  it  has  not  been  disturbed. 


26 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


In  the  earlier  part  of  the  chapter  the  churches  Fi  and  F2  have  been  mentioned  and  they  are 
fi:lly  described  below  in  Chapters  V  and  VI.  About  350  m.  to  the  northeast  of  Fr  there  is  a  small 
rectangular  stone  structure  surrounding  a  shaft  tomb,  and  about  600  m.  due  east  from  the  church 
marked  Fi  there  is  a  circular  well  shaft  1.20  m.  in  diameter  built  of  rough  sandstone  blocks.  A 
stone  paved  channel  leads  away  from  it  in  a  northeasterly  direction  for  about  five  metres. 
tio"^ofFaras  introductory'  chapter  the  suggestion  has  been  made  that  Faras  is  the  site  of  the 

as  Bawsaka.  mediaeval  town  of  Bawsaka,  but  the  evidence  is  purely  circumstantial.  The  present  Nubian 
name  of  the  district  is  Kikilan  or  Kiklos,  of  which  the  Arabic  "  Faras  "  is  merely  a  translation,  for 
the  name  means  the  "Mare." 

The  mediaeval  antiquities  are  so  numerous  and  so  imposing  that  the  district  must  have  been 
of  first  rate  importance.  But  there  is  no  mention  by  the  Arab  historians  of  any  such  names  as 
are  current  at  present  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  therefore  it  is  probable  that  one  of  the  historical 
names  which  have  not  yet  been  allocated  must  be  assigned  to  this  site. 

It  is  a  quotation  from  Abu  Selah  given  by  Quatremere  that  suggests  the  identification  of 
Bawsaka  with  Faras,  The  historian  is  enumerating  some  of  the  chief  places  in  Nubia.*  After 
stating  that  Begrash  was  a  well-built  and  populous  town  he  refers  to  a  monastery  situated  at  the 
foot  of  the  second  cataract  dedicated  to  Safanouf ,  King  of  Nubia,  and  apparently  also  dedicated 
to  SS.  Michael  and  Kosma.  The  next  reference  is  to  a  temple  placed  between  two  high  mountains 
near  the  monastery'  of  Daira  and  then  there  follows  a  more  detailed  note  on  this  town  called 
Bawsaka. 

The  most  important  points  in  the  description  are  the  mention  of  a  number  of  churches  and 
the  statement  that  the  residence  of  the  Lord  of  the  Mountain  was  in  this  town.  There  is  no 
site  in  Lower  Nubia  which  has  so  many  ruined  churches,  for  there  are  remains  of  seven  large 
churches  exposed  to  view  and  there  may  be  yet  others  within  the  enclosure  wall  buried  under 
the  mounds  of  sand,  as  well  as  in  the  sandhills  to  the  northeast  of  the  fortress. 

Besides  the  churches  there  are  several  small  chapels:  two  within  the  castle  itself  are  still 
visible  and  the  grottoes  in  the  rocky  valley  which  lies  to  the  northwest  of  the  cultivation  were 
used  for  purposes  of  Christian  ritual.  The  castle  would  have  been  eminently  suited  for  use  as  the 
residence  of  the  governor  of  the  province,  and  that  it  was  inhabited  during  the  later  Christian 
period,  although  the  old  enclosure  wall  was  ruined,  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  existence  of  the 
chapels  in  the  upper  story  which  have  remains  of  paintings  of  distinctly  late  character  upon 
the  walls. 

Vanous  Arab  writers  have  made  references  to  the  Castle  of  the  Mountain  and  the  Castle 
of  the  Lord  of  the  Mountain,  but  there  is  no  clear  description  of  it,  or  note  of  its  topographical 
♦  position. 


*See  Chapter  I,  p.  5. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  NORTHERN  CHURCH  AT  FARAS 

Excavations  were  begun  at  the  end  of  Februar\%  1909,  on  the  two  churches  which  lie  inland 
from  Faras,  marked  respectively  Fi  and  F2  on  the  map.  The  northern  of  these  two  was  the 
first  to  be  cleared  for  study,  and  it  was  found  to  be  very  similar  to  the  church  near  Debereh  which 
has  already  been  described,  but  slightly  larger. 

The  church,  which  measures  about  19.30  m.  by  12.25  stands  at  right  angles  to  the  edge 
of  the  rocky  ledge  which  was  formerly  the  bank  of  the  river,  and  the  magnetic  direction  of  the 
south  arcade  was  135  degrees  30  minutes  when  the  notes  were  taken. 

Very  little  of  the  structure  was  observable  when  the  excavations  were  started,  for  the  walls  Condition. 
are  not  standing  to  so  great  a  height  as  at  Debereh,  and  the  drift  from  the  desert  behind  the 
church  had  almost  filled  the  interior  with  sand.  Indeed  the  rubbish  and  sand  lay  to  a  depth 
of  over  three  metres  in  many  parts.  The  southern  half  of  the  church  proved  to  be  in  the  best 
state  of  preservation,  for  the  northern  arcade  had  collapsed  and  the  piers  stood  only  about  a  metre 
high.  When  the  sand  was  removed  the  church  proved  to  be  slightly  longer  than  the  former  one 
and  more  clumsy  in  proportion. 

The  Haikal  was  first  cleared  and  it  was  found  to  measure  about  3.75  m.  by  3.40  m.  The  Haikal. 

A  well-preserved  tribune  occupies  the  usual  position.    It  is  built  of  brick  and  plastered,  '^"^  Tribune 
and  sufficient  lime- white  remained  upon  it  to  show  that  originally  it  had  been  entirely  whitened. 
The  steps  rise  in  five  equal  tiers  to  a  height  of  i.io  m.  and  the  central  seat  is  emphasized  by  an 
additional  height  of  0.03  m. 

Above  the  tribvme  are  the  three  customar>'  niches  0.50  m.  wide  and  i  .0  m.  high,  placed  0.20  m. 
above  the  upper  step.  The  centre  niche  is  0.40  m.  deep,  but  the  other  two  run  further  into 
the  heavy  masonry  at  the  sides  of  the  apse,  viz.,  0.76  m.  on  the  north  side  and  c.65  m.  on  the  south. 
All  the  niches  have  flat  lintels  of  sandstone. 

Arched  openings  on  either  side  of  the  sanctuary  communicate  with  the  sacristies  and  aisles. 
A  small  niche  on  the  east  side  of  the  north  pier  of  the  Arch  of  Triumph  had  constantly 
contained  a  lamp,  for  the  masonry  below  was  almost  saturated  with  oil  which  was  still  undried. 

The  floor  of  the  Haikal  appears  to  have  been  the  solid  rock,  levelled  perhaps  by  a  layer  of 
beaten  mud.    There  is  no  evidence  of  a  step  between  the  nave  and  sanctuary,  though  there  . 
may  have  been  one  of  beaten  mud  if  the  flooring  of  the  Haikal  was  up  above  the  level  of  the  rock. 

The  position  of  the  altar  is  clearly  marked  on  the  rock  by  mud  mortar  which  had  evidently  The  Altar.  . 
formed  part  of  the  plastering  of  the  brickwork  of  which  the  altar  had  been  built.    Traces  of  this 
mortar  exist  at  the  northwest  angle  of  the  structure  and  along  the  eastern  side. 

The  nave  is  about  9.0  metres  long  and  4.0  m.  wide  and  is  nearly  rectangvilar,  for  the  difference  The  Nave. 
between  the  diagonals  is  but  0.12  m. 

The  walls  separating  the  nave  from  the  aisles  are  i.io  m.  thick  on  the  north  side  and  1.15  m. 
on  the  south.  They  can  hardly  be  called  arcades,  for  the  arched  openings,  three  in  each  case, 
are  only  about  half  as  wide  as  the  piers  separating  them.  The  openings  are  1.45  m.  wide  and 
the  piers  2.35  m.  on  an  average.  The  piers  are  built  of  sandstone  blocks  laid  in  mud  mortar, 
but  the  openings  have  a  brick  lining  0.30  m.  thick  carried  up  to  take  the  skew  arch.  The  arches 
in  the  south  wall  spring  at  an  average  level  of  1.20  m.  above  the  floor  and  rise  to  a  height  of  2.00  m. 

(27) 


28 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


The  Nave. 


The  Arch  of 
Triumph. 


The  Pulpit. 


Bay  and 
Aisles. 


Entrances. 


The  North 
Sacristy. 


A  course  of  headers  was  placed  over  the  skew  arch  forming  a  true  arch  over  it  and  above  the 
crown  the  wall  was  carried  up  in  brick.  The  level  of  the  springing  of  the  nave  vault  is  not  deter- 
minable as  the  original  wall  does  not  stand  to  any  great  height  above  the  arches,  though  a  part, 
which  is  comparatively  modem,  has  been  carried  up  in  rough  rubble  for  some  considerable 
distance.  This  evidently  formed  the  north  wall  of  a  dwelling  made  in  the  western  part  of  the 
south  aisle,  the  beaten  mud  floor  of  which  was  found  over  the  fallen  vault. 

The  wall  of  the  Arch  of  Triumph  is  not  standing  to  any  great  height  and  little  of  it  remains 
but  the  reveals  and  the  base  of  the  north  column.  The  latter  consists  of  a  square  member  0.35  m. 
wide  and  0.15  m.  high  and  a  drum  above  it  0.33  m.  diameter  and  0.30  m.  high  with  a  groove 
about  0.0 1  m.  deep  worked  round  it. 

The  pulpit  occupies  the  usual  position  against  the  eastern  pier  of  the  north  arcade,  but  it 
projects  almost  half  across  the  eastern  arch.  It  consists  of  steps  of  five  risers  leading  up  to  a 
small  platform  about  0.80  m.  square,  round  the  edges  of  which  extended  a  low  parapet  0.05  m. 
high  and  o.io  m.  wide.  The  total  length  of  the  pulpit  is  1.90  m.  and  the  height  of  the  platform 
from  the  ground  1.05  m. 

The  western  bay  opening  out  of  the  nave  is  2.15  m.  wide  and  3.48  m.  long.  It  has  onlv  one 
doorway  opening  out  of  it  and  this  leads  to  the  staircase.  A  single  niche  occupies  the  west  wall 
and  this  is  0.45  m.  wide  by  i.o  m.  high  and  is  1.12  m.  from  the  ground. 

The  north  aisle  is  10.55      loi^g  ^.nd  2.00  m.  wide. 

The  walls  have  been  much  ruined,  but  it  corresponds  to  the  south  aisle  in  most  of  its  features. 

The  south  aisle  is  10.80  m.  long  and  1.90  m.  wide  and  the  vault  spanning  it  springs  at  a 
height  of  2.50  m.  from  the  floor  and  about  0.50  m.  above  the  level  of  the  intrados  of  the  arches 
of  the  arcade. 

There  are  three  niches  in  the  south  wall;  they  are  square  headed  and  about  0.55  m.  wide 
and  0.90  m.  high  and  are  about  i.oo  m.  from  the  ground.  The  heads  are  formed  of  slabs  of 
carefully  dressed  sandstone  about  o.io  m.  thick.  The  north  aisle  is  similar  in  arrangement  but 
the  walls  and  piers  are  much  ruined. 

The  outer  doors  occupy  the  usual  positions.  The  southern  one  is  i.i8m.  wide,  and  has 
reveals  on  the  outer  side.  On  either  side  of  this  entrance  there  are  rough  brick  walls  which 
had  been  altered  and  rebuilt  in  more  recent  years.  These  had  in  all  likelihood  formed  a  porch 
or  entrance  chamber  of  some  sort.  A  more  perfect  example  can  be  seen  at  the  other  church 
near  by  (see  PI.  17  and  Chapter  VI).  Built  into  this  wall  on  the  west  of  the  doorw'ay  is  a  large 
capital,  but  it  is  utterly  defaced. 

This  porch  and  the  western  part  of  the  south  aisle  had  a  floor  of  beaten  mud  above  the  fallen 
rubbish,  and  the  ruined  walls  of  the  church  had  been  roughly  patched  and  heightened.  At  this 
floor  level  a  quantity  of  date  stones  were  found  and  a  fragment  of  a  wooden  kohlpot  painted 
with  a  black  design  on  a  yellow  ground.  These  indications  suggest  that  this  part  of  the  building 
had  been  used  for  dwelling  purposes  long  after  the  church  had  been  destroyed. 

Of  the  north  door  the  western  jambs  alone  remain,  for  the  western  part  of  the  outer  wall  of 
the  aisle  has  disappeared. 

The  only  entrance  to  the  north  sacristy  is  through  the  doorway  from  the  Haikal.  This 
doorway  has  a  flat  stone  lintel  1.90  m.  above  the  sill  and  over  the  reveal  on  the  inner  side  there 
had  been  a  skew  arch.  Across  the  springing  of  this  arch  a  wooden  beam  had  been  laid,  perhaps 
for  the  purpose  of  hanging  a  curtain. 

The  floor  of  the  sacristy  is  some  five  centimetres  below  the  level  of  the  Haikal.  A  brick 
and  mud  bench  0.30  m.  wide  and  0.20  m.  high  which  has  a  short  return  on  either  side  is  built 
against  the  east  wall.  On  the  south  return  of  the  bench  there  is  a  circular  pottery  jar  0.20  m. 
diameter  sunk  into  the  brickwork.  There  are  two  niches  0.90  m.  high  and  i.io  m.  above 
the  floor  of  the  room  which  meast:res  2.06  m.  from  east  to  west  and  2.43  m.  from  north  to 


FARAS 


29 


south.    The  walls  are  broken  down  below  the  lev^el  of  the  vault  for  the  most  part,  but 
the  springing  line  can  be  distinguished  at  2.75  m.  above  the  floor  on  the  west  wall. 

The  south  sacristy  measures  2.50  m.  from  north  to  south  and  1.92  m.  from  east  to  west.  The  South 
It  has  two  entrances,  one  from  the  Haikal,  square  headed,  and  one  from  the  south  aisle  which  Sacristy. 
has  reveals  and  is  treated  with  the  usual  lintel  and  arch.    There  is  a  recess  in  the  south  wall 
covered  by  a  skew  arch  and  a  niche  with  a  semi-circular  head  in  the  east  wall.    The  vault  springs 
at  2.70  m.  from  the  floor  on  the  east  and  west  walls  and  rose  originally  to  a  height  of  about  3.50  m. 

The  north  wall  of  the  chamber  is  covered  with  inscriptions  cut  in  the  mud  plaster  but  they 
are  extremely  difficult  to  read,  as  the  white  ants  have  almost  honeycombed  the  plaster.  The 
two  most  noticeable  are  ten  lines  over  the  door  head  and  a  lengthv  inscription  of  about  fifteen 
lines  at  a  lower  level  commemorating  visitors  to  the  church.  Mr.  W.  E.  Crum  studied  the  rough 
copies  of  this  latter  made  by  the  author  but  was  able  to  decipher  little  beyond  the  fact  that  it 
begins  with  the  formula  ANOK  TIETP  .  .  .  and  that  the  last  three  lines  finish  with  the 
following  words:  MHNA 

"/eNoyeoc  ap  man 
ye  icoy  monaxuc  e>4>q"3 

Reference  is  here  made  to  **t  ENOT0OC  the  archimandrite,  the  son  (i.  e.  spiritual 
son)  of  ICOT  the  monk,  and  a  date  follows  which  appears  to  read  597  of  the  Martyrs  (881  a.d.). 
Mr.  Crum  was  at  first  of  the  opinion  that  the  famous  archimandrite  Shenoute  of  the  White 
Monastery  was  intended,  the  writer  being  the  spiritual  son  of  the  bishop  Jesu,  whose  stele 
has  recently  been  published,  but  he  has  pointed  out  that  such  a  supposition  is  not  in  accordance 
with  the  date,  which  is  some  200  years  before  the  bishop's  death. 

A  door  at  the  west  end  of  the  north  aisle  leads  into  the  customary  northwest  chamber,  a  room  Northwest 
2.75  m.  from  east  to  west  and  3.00  m.  from  north  to  south,  which  has  most  irregular  angles. 
There  is  a  niche  in  each  wall  at  i.io  m.  above  the  ground.    The  vault  springs  on  the  east  and 
west  walls  at  2.35  m.  above  the  floor. 

The  staircase  is  of  about  the  same  size  as  the  latter  chamber.    The  stair  rises  in  the  reverse  Staircase. 
direction  to  that  which  is  customan.^  and  the  steps  are  approached  by  a  short  passage.  Under 
the  staircase  there  is  a  small  cupboard  with  a  low  doorway  leading  to  it  close  to  the  entrance  to 
the  staircase. 

Whilst  the  exterior  of  the  church  was  being  cleared  for  measurement,  the  entrance  to  a  tomb  The  Tomb. 
was  found  opposite  the  centre  of  the  east  end.  The  opening  was  covered  by  stone  slabs  and  when 
these  were  removed  a  shaft  1.45  m.  deep  and  0.70  m.  square  was  disclosed,  cut  through  the  rock. 
From  this  opening  a  semi-circular-headed  tunnel,  gradually  diminishing  in  height  and  width, 
leads  under  the  church  for  a  distance  of  1.70  m.  The  entrance  to  this  gallery  is  marked  by  a 
flat  fillet  0.07  m.  wide  in  flat  rehef  as  an  architrave,  over  which  is  a  cross  0.23  m.  high  and  0.12  m. 
wide.  The  entrance  to  the  tomb  is  shown  on  PI.  13,  Fig.  a.  Inside  the  tomb  were  the  bones  of 
five  or  six  persons  in  confusion. 

If  the  evidence  of  the  date  given  in  the  inscription  in  the  sacristy  is  correct,  the  church  must  Date^ 
have  been  built  about  150  years  before  the  stele  was  placed  in  the  church  at  Debereh  and  in  that 
case  the  marked  similarity  of  the  two  plans  is  worthy  of  note.  There  is  no  difference  noticeable 
in  the  methods  of  construction  employed,  but  the  heaviness  of  the  piers  and  the  small  area  of 
the  openings  in  the  church  at  Faras  certainly  suggest  an  earl}'  date  and  imply  that  the  builders 
were  as  yet  uncertain  in  designing. 


30 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


LIST  OF  OBJECTS  FOUND  IN  THE  CHURCH 


In  the  Haikal. 


1.  Fragment  of  a  bowl  0.09  m.  high  and  0.12  m. 

diameter.  Red  slip  ware  with  painted 
design  in  black. 

2.  Two  rough  circular  pottery  lamps. 

3.  Portion  of  red  pottery  flat  dish  with  turned 

up  edge. 

In  the  North  Sacristy. 

4.  A  small  inscribed  stele  of  sandstone.  The 

inscription  is  almost  obliterated. 

5.  A  plain  circular  burnt  clay  lamp     o.ii  m. 

diameter. 

6.  Several  fragments  of  glass  of  a  light  green 
tint. 

7.  Several  discoid  jar  sealings. 

8.  The  stems  of  two  cups  of  red  slip  ware,  pebble 

polished,  similar  to  that  found  in  F2.  (See 
p.  35  ;  also  PI.  ig,  Fig.  a.) 

9.  Part  of  a  large  burnt  clay  box  with  rough 

painted  decoration  in  red  ochre  and  yellow. 
(Cf.  Debereh,  p.  20;  see  No.  11.) 


In  the  Nave. 

10.  A  roughly  made  sandstone  pipe  bowl,  similar 

to  the  pipes  in  use  at  Malta. 

In  the  Staircase  Passage. 

11.  Part  of  a  rough  pottery  box  0.35  m.  high, 

0.35  m.  wide  and  about  0.50  m.  long.  It 
has  a  band  of  applied  ornament  near  the 
top  consisting  of  a  semi-circular  strip  with 
incised  cuts  on  it.  Below  this  there  is  a 
trellis  design  painted  in  red  ochre  and 
yellow.    (Cf.  No.  9.) 

12.  A  plain  red  slip  bowl  0.205  ™-  diameter 

and  0.08  m.  high  with  base  ring.  (See 
PI.  19,  Fig.  b.) 

13.  A  buff  slip  bowl  with  a  painted  design  inside 

in  purple  black,  diameter  0.18  m.,  height 
0.0575  m.  Base  ring.  (See  PI.  19,  Figs. 
a  and  b.) 

These  two  bowls  were  placed  one  inside  the 
other  and  inverted  over  about  two  dozen 
small  spherical  ferruginous  sandstone  nod- 
ules on  the  floor  of  the  passage. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  SOUTHERN  CHURCH  AT  FARAS  (F2) 

The  second  of  the  churches  excavated  in  this  district  lies  to  the  southwest  of  the  former  and  Position  and 
but  168  m.  distant  from  it.    The  two  buildings  are  not  parallel,  and  the  difference  between  the  Orientation. 
orientation  of  the  naves  Is  8  degrees  30  minutes.    In  the  present  example  the  axis  of  the  nave  is 
127  degrees  30  minutes  (Mag.)  whereas  the  centre  line  of  the  nave  of  the  former  church  is  136 
degrees  (Mag.).   Owing  to  the  rhomboidal  shape  of  the  plan  of  this  second  church,  however,  the 
eastern  walls  are  approximately  parallel  on  the  exterior. 

The  outline  of  the  plan  has  features  of  mathematical  interest.    In  spite  of  its  unsymmetrical 
angles  the  opposite  sides  of  the  building  are  almost  exactly  equal,  the  dimensions  being: — 

Breadth  of  east  end   12.80  m. 

Breadth  of  west  end   12.75 

Length  of  north  side   22.95 

Length  of  south  side   22.92  m. 

These  variations  are  extremely  slight,  especially  when  the  nature  of  the  material  is  taken  into 
consideration ;  indeed  the  ver\^  roughness  of  such  sandstone  blocks  as  were  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  this  church  may  well  account  for  an  odd  centimetre  of  difference. 

In  view  of  such  accuracy  in  the  lineal  measurements  it  is  extremely  surprising  to  notice  the  Setting  out 
apparent  carelessness  with  which  the  angles  of  the  building  were  set  out.  The  properties  of  a  '^^  P^<^^- 
right  angled  triangle  would  appear  to  have  been  realized,  in  part  at  least,  b}^  builders  of  all  nations 
from  remote  antiquity,  but  the  Nubians  seem  to  have  ignored  their  practical  application.  A 
friend  of  the  author,  who  has  been  engaged  in  the  study  of  many  mediaeval  buildings,  suggested 
that  the  designers  of  this  church  were  aware  of  the  customary  rule  for  getting  out  a  right  angle 
by  means  of  a  triangle  whose  sides  are  in  the  ratio  of  3,  4,  5,  but  that  they  had  forgotten  the  actual 
figures  and  used  instead  a  triangle  with  sides  in  the  ratio  of  4,  5,  6,  or  some  other  miscalculation. 

However  this  may  be,  it  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  if  measurements  be  taken  from  one  of  the 
acute  angles  four  units  along  one  side  and  five  along  the  other,  the  distance  between  the  two  points 
thus  determined  will  be  found  to  measure  exactly  6  of  the  same  units.  It  may  be  merely  a 
coincidence  that  it  should  be  so,  and  that  other  reasons  may  have  determined  the  extraordinary 
skew  of  the  plan,  but  there  are  no  natural  features  in  the  ground  which  could  influence  the  setting 
out. 

When  the  work  of  clearing  was  commenced  the  church  was  much  encumbered  by  sand  and  Peculiarities 
rubbish,  but  it  was  noticeable  from  the  start  of  the  excavations  that  it  possessed  unusual  features.  °f  Pl<^^- 
PI.  16,  Fig.  a  shows  the  condition  of  the  north  side  of  the  nave  before  the  work  was  started.  The 
sand  lay  on  this  side  to  a  depth  of  less  than  a  metre,  but  on  the  south  side  the  sand  and  rubbish 
was  piled  up  against  the  arcade  wall  to  a  height  of  over  two  metres  and  the  south  aisle  was  filled 
with  rubbish  to  an  equal  height.  The  arrangement  of  the  west  end  of  the  church  was  seen  to  be 
unusual  and  when  it  had  been  cleared  the  design  was  found  to  be  more  complex  than  in 
the  former  examples.  Another  unique  feature  of  the  plan  is  the  staircase  at  the  east  end  of 
the  building  in  place  of  the  customary  sacristy  chamber. 

(31) 


32 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


The 

Haikal. 


Tombs.        In  the  eastern  part  of  the  church  there  are  three  shaft  tombs  and  one  shallow  grave.  The 
latter  (a),  which  is  in  the  north  aisle,  and  the  shaft  (y8)  near  it  were  opened,  but  owing  to  the 

fact  that  this  work  involved  much  labour  and  that  no 
objects  seem  to  have  been  Vjuried  in  the  tombs,  further 
exploration  of  the  shafts  was  not  attempted. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  church  was  the  first  to  be 
excavated,  and  it  was  soon  apparent  that  the  structure 
below  the  sand  was  in  an  excellent  state  of  preserva- 
tion. The  tribune  was  found  to  be  almost  perfect  and 
even  the  surface  of  lime-white  remained  over  the  greater 
part  of  it.  The  steps  rise  in  three  equal  tiers  to  a  height 
of  0.90  m.,  above  which  is  a  further  step  0.20  m.  high, 
and  the  central  seat  has  an  additional  height  of  0.15  m. 

The  greatest  width  of  the  Haikal  is  4.38  m.  and  its 
length  is  about  3.70  m.    The  arrangement  of  openings 
to  the  aisles  and  sacristies  is  normal,  but  the  door  to  the  south  sacristy  has  been  bricked  up 
flush.    The  three  niches  occupy  their  usual  positions.    In  the  southern  of  these  there  is  a  rough 
circular  pedestal  about  0.12  m.  in  diameter  at  the  base  built  up  of  mud  to  a  height  of  about 


0.17  m.  It  had  evidently  been  used  as  a  support  for  a  lamp  from  which  the  oil  running  down 
had  reduced  the  mud  to  a  consistency  resembling  rubber. 


THE  SOUTHERN  CHURCH  AT  FARAS 


33 


Against  the  northern  pier  of  the  Arch  of  Triumph  there  stands  a  base  probably  taken  from  The  Haikal. 
some  column.    The  circular  member  is  0.22  m.  in  upper  diameter  and  the  square  member  has 
sides  of  0.30  m.    In  total  height  it  is  0.16  m.    Nearly  in  the 

centre  of  the  upper  surface  there  is  a  rebate  or  sinking  o.  10  m.  *-       ^'^  =?  ^- 

square  which  must  have  received  the  base  of  a  timber  post,  for  ii 


fragments  of  the  wood  still  adhere. 

While  the  tribune  was  being  cleared  part  of  the  broken  The  Alu 
sandstone  slab  of  the  altar  was  discovered  resting  upon  a  brick 
pier.  As  soon  as  the  excavation  had  gone  deeper  the  whole 
altar  was  disclosed  with  the  exception  of  the  remaining  part  of 
the  stone  slab.  Soon  after  the  rubbish  had  been  taken  away 
the  brickwork  showed  a  tendency  to  crumble  under  the  weight 
of  the  stone,  which  was  therefore  removed.  In  the  photograph 
of  the  interior  looking  east  (PI.  16,  Fig.  b)  the  stone  is  shown 
lying  on  the  ground  at  the  side  of  the  altar. 

The  altar  was  built  of  burnt  bricks  measuring  0.32  m. 


by  0.18  m.  by  0.08  m.  and  each  angle  was  strengthened  by  a  Base  from  Haikal. 

square  pilaster  of  fine  sandstone  o.i  i  m.  wide  on  each  face.  Its 

average  dimensions  are  0.90  m.  from  north  to  south,  0.75  m.  from  east  to  west  and  0.90  m.  in 
height.  In  the  centre,  under  the  stone  top,  there  seems  to  have  been  a  niche  or  recess,  perhaps  used 
as  a  reliquary.  The  brickwork  showed  traces  of  mud  plaster  and  whitewash  and  upon  the  pilaster 
was  noticeable  whitewash  and  the  remains  of  two  vertical  and  two  diagonal  lines  of  red  paint. 

A  sinking  in  the  floor  to  the  north  of  the  altar  and  partly  beneath  it  marks  the  position  of  a 
shaft  tomb  and  there  is  also  the  beginning  of  another  shaft  in  front  of  the  altar  which  was  not 
completed. 

The  nave  is  11.85  m.  long  and  4.08  m.  wide,  and  is  separated  from  the  aisles  by  arcades  of  The  Nave. 
five  bays.    The  piers  are  i.iom.  thick,  and  they  are  1.60  m.  wide.    Although  as  usual  the 
arched  openings  are  less  in  width  than  the  intervening  piers  the  impression  gained  from  a  view 
of  the  arcades  is  one  of  lightness  when  compared  with  the  former  examples  and  of  greater  length, 
owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  number  and  good  proportion  of  the  openings. 

The  piers  and  walls  are  built  of  sandstone  to  a  height  of  3.10  m.  from  the  floor,  but  the  arches 
are  of  brick  and  are  built  skew.  Above  the  stonework  the  walls  are  carried  up  in  brick  and 
after  four  vertical  courses  they  oversail  in  the  usual  manner  for  an  additional  nine  courses  to  the 
springing  of  the  vault. 

In  the  nave  walls  the  usual  openings  from  the  upper  aisles  were  formed,  two  of  which  can 
be  seen  on  the  north  side.  There  were  four  of  these  on  each  side,  those  which  at  present  exist 
are  over  the  two  western  piers  of  the  arcade,  and  there  would  naturally  be  similar  openings  over 
the  other  two"  piers. 

Little  remains  of  the  Arch  of  Triumph  except  the  lower  part  of  the  shafts  set  in  the  customary  jiig  j^fch  of 
reveals.    The  shafts  were  of  close-grained  red  sandstone  0.37  m.  diameter,  finely  worked  and  Triumph. 
finished  on  plain  square  bases  0.25  m.  high.    About  o.iom.  above  the  base  there  is  a  groove 
cut  round  the  shaft.    Part  of  the  square  base  of  each  column  has  been  cut  out  to  receive  a  beam, 
evidently  the  sill  piece  for  a  screen.    There  is  no  defined  step  to  the  Haikal,  but  any  change  in 
level  of  the  floor  may  have  been  made  up  in  flooring  against  the  sill. 

The  pulpit,  which  can  be  seen  in  the  photograph  b,  on  PI.  16,  has  been  badly  damaged  by  The  Pulpit. 
falling  masonry.    It  is  1.55  m.  long  and  0.60  m.  wide,  and  consists  of  steps  of  four  rises  and  a 
small  platform  0.72  m.  long.    The  total  height  to  the  latter  is  0.60  m. 

The  two  aisles  are  similar  in  plan,  but,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  cross  section  on  PI.  18,  the  The  Aisles. 
southern  is  in  the  better  state  of  preservation,  and  from  it  alone  can  the  construction  be  noted. 
3 


34 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


The  Aisles. 


The  South 
Sacristy. 


Northeast 
Staircase. 


The  Western 
Chambers. 


Dating. 


The  total  length  of  this  aisle  is  13.80  m.  and  its  width  is  2.05  m.  Towards  its  eastern  end  a 
portion  of  the  vault  was  found,  springing  at  a  level  3.15  m.  above  the  ground,  but  shortly 
after  the  rubbish  was  removed  the  brickwork  fell.  In  the  south  wall  there  are  three  niches 
each  0.60  m.  wide,  i.oo  m.  high,  0.38  m.  deep  and  1.15  m.  above  the  ground. 

In  line  with  the  piers  supporting  the  Arch  of  Triumph  there  is  a  crude  brick  screen  wall, 
projecting  from  the  outer  wall  of  the  south  aisle  for  a  distance  of  1.20  m.  with  a  return  of  the 
thickness  of  a  brick  towards  the  east,  thus  leaving  a  passage  0.80  m.  wide  against  the  pier.  The 
screen  is  only  0.20  m.  thick  but  is  1.30  m.  high.  On  the  top  of  the  screen  there  are  two  small 
circular  pedestals  for  such  mud  lamps  as  that  which  was  foimd  in  the  niche  in  the  Haikal. 

The  door  leading  from  the  Haikal  to  the  south  sacristy  has  been  bricked  up  by  a  thin  wall  and 
the  only  entrance  to  the  chamber  is  from  the  aisle.  The  walls  are  much  dilapidated,  especially 
towards  the  southeast  angle.  In  the  north  wall  there  is  a  niche  0.60  m.  wide  and  0.55  m.  deep, 
and  the  bricked-up  doorway  to  the  Haikal  forms  another  recess  on  that  side.  The  floor  had  been 
made  up  in  this  space  to  a  height  of  about  o.io  m.  with  mud,  in  which  there  is  a  circular  depression 
which  perhaps  marks  the  position  of  the  stand  for  a  water-jar  or  filter.  Against  the  south  wall 
there  is  a  bench  0.22  m.  high,  which  returns  along  half  the  length  of  the  east  wall;  and  at  the  end 
of  this  return  there  stands  part  of  a  granite  column  bedded  in  the  floor.  The  column  has  an 
average  diameter  of  0.22  m.  and  is  i.oo  m.  high. 

The  position  usually  allotted  to  the  north  sacristy  is  occupied  by  a  staircase  which  is  entered 
from  the  Haikal.  The  steps  originally  led  up  on  the  right  of  the  doorway,  but  a  thin  wall  formed 
of  stone  slabs  was  afterwards  constructed  to  close  the  lower  end  of  the  stairway,  and  the  space 
above  this  was  found  to  be  filled  with  rubbish  and  broken  potterv-  among  which  were  many 
fragments  of  interest. 

The  plan  of  the  western  chambers  shows  a  marked  departure  from  the  stereotyped  arrange- 
ment. The  bay  opening  from  the  nave  is  shallow  and  the  staircase  is  placed  behind  it  instead 
of  at  the  end  of  the  south  aisle  as  in  the  other  examples  noted.  An  additional  chamber  is  thus 
formed  in  the  position  usually  occupied  by  the  staircase. 

The  western  bay  itself  is  but  1.45  m.  deep.  The  bench  which  is  placed  against  its  west  and 
north  walls  is  0.38  m.  high  and  is  formed  of  finely  dressed  sandstone  slabs  resting  upon  a  low 
brick  and  stone  wall.  There  is  a  niche  in  the  north  wall  which  is  1.13  m.  above  the  ground  and 
its  floor  was  covered  with  soft  red  tiles  about  0.12  m  square  and  0.015  thick.  A  doorway 
on  the  south  side  of  the  bay  leads  to  the  passage  commimicating  with  the  staircase  and  the  room 
at  the  west  end  of  the  south  aisle.  Part  of  the  space  under  the  stairs  has  been  screened  off  by 
stone  slabs  on  edge,  but  there  is  a  small  opening  close  to  the  ground  through  this  partition. 

The  chamber  at  the  west  end  of  the  south  aisle  has  no  distinctive  features  beyond  the  three 
niches  shown  on  the  plan:  two  in  the  south  wall  and  one  in  the  east.    The  northwest  chamber, 

which  is  entered  from  the  north  aisle, is  similar, 
but  possesses  only  the  one  niche  in  the  south 
wall. 

There  were  but  few  objects  found  which 
would  give  any  clue  to  the  date  of  the  build- 
ing; indeed  the  only  dateable  material  consists 
of  a  fragment  of  parchment  and  a  few  odd 
scraps  found  in  the  southwest  chamber  of  the 
church.  Mr.  Crum  states  that  these  show 
remnants  of  Saidic  texts,  written  in  good, 


Inscription  on  Corner  Stone. 


small  uncials,  of  about  the  sixth  or  seventh  century. 

At  the  northeast  angle  of  the  church  there  is  a  quoin  close  to  the  ground,  which  has  the 
remains  of  a  badly  cut  inscription  upon  its  eastern  face.  This,  which  is  reproduced  above,  is 
almost  unreadable,  and  the  little  which  can  be  deciphered  is  apparently  meaningless. 


THE  SOUTHERN  CHURCH  AT  FARAS 


35 


LIST  OF  OBJECTS  FOUND  IN  THE  CHURCH  AT  FARAS  (F2) 


In  the  Southwest  Chamber. 

1.  Some  fragments  of  parchment  manuscript. 

2.  Fragments  of  a  rough  baked  clay  jar  with  four 

mouths  round  the  sides  and  a  neck  at  the 
top. 

3.  Fragments  of  a  baked  clay  grille. 

4.  Many  chips  and  splinters  of  sandalwood. 

A  t  the  back  of  the  Staircase. 

5.  A  small  fragment  of  a  carved  stone  grille  with 

floral  design  of  Romano-Nubian  type. 

6.  Many  fragments  of  sandalwood,  some  of  which 

had  formed  part  of  turned  balusters. 

U nder  the  Stairs. 

7.  A  spherical  quartz  "rubber"  or  "pounder" 

about  0.05  m.  in  diameter. 

8.  Many  clay  jar  sealings  about  ten  of  which  were 

stamped,  red  ochre  showing  on  the  impres- 
sion. 


8.  Clay  Sealings. 


35.  Clay  Sealings 
from  S.  E.  Chamber. 


Part  of  a  red  slip  ware  bowl  0.20  m.  diameter, 
0.07  m.  high,  with  a  base  ring  0.09  m.  diam- 
eter. 

Part  of  a  flat  baked  clay  dish  about  0.36  m. 
diameter,  with  rough  cross  design  on  it 
made  by  three  fingers  across  the  wet  clay. 


11.  Part  of  a  large  bowl  0.43  m.  diameter,  of  black 

pottery  with  a  moulded  rim  and  incised 
design. 

12.  Many  fragments  of  rough  pottery  and  pieces 

of  sandalwood. 

In  the  Nave. 

13.  Two  hand-made  whitish  slip  bowls  0.14  m. 

in  diameter  and  0.05  m.  deep,  with  designs 
painted  on  the  interior  in  purple,  black, 
orange  and  red,  were  found,  one  inside  the 
other,  inverted  over  about  a  dozen  and  a 
half  of  ironstone  nodules,  on  the  floor  just 
at  the  re-entrant  angle  of  the  bench  at  the 
western  end.    (See  PI.  19,  Fig.  d.) 

In  the  North  Aisle. 

14.  A  small  shallow  dish  with  base  ring  o.io  m. 

diameter,  of  dark  orange  slip  ware,  with 
design  or  inscription  painted  in  centre 
KO  pKO 

ni  r  ni 

In  the  Northwest  Chamber. 

15.  A  broken  circular  pottery  lamp. 

16.  A  fragment  of  a  white  glass  vessel  showing  a 

base  ring. 

17.  A  small  fragment  of  parchment  manuscript. 

In  the  Northeast  Staircase. 

18.  A  large  jar,  in  many  fragments,  of  light  buff 

slip  ware  about  0.50  m  high.  It  had  a 
short  neck  and  two  handles  and  on  the 
shoulders  there  was  painted  on  the  one  side 
an  eagle  with  displayed  wings  and  on  the 
other  a  complicated  cross  design. 

19.  A  bowl  0.14  m.  diameter,  of  hard  black  ware 

with  base  ring,  a  small  five-leafed  flower 
stamped  in  the  centre  inside. 

20.  Fourteen  circular  pottery  lamps. 

21.  A  red  ware  bowl  0.12  m.  diameter,  with  base 

ring  which  had  been  used  to  contain  oil. 

22.  The  cover  of  a  thurible  of  brass  with  circular 

pierced  holes. 

23.  A  small  pottery  oil  vessel  0.06  m.  diameter  at 

base  0.05  m.  high,  with  straight  sides 
sloping  outward  to  an  upper  diameter  of 
0.08  m. 

24.  Fragment  of  pale  green  glass;  the  handle  of 

a  cup  or  lamp. 
2  5 .  Many  fragments  of  rough  pottery. 

/ n  the  Southeast  Chamber. 

26.  A  cup  or  chalice  on  a  stem  0.14  m.  high, 
0.10  m.  greatest  diameter.  The  pottery 
is  fine  and  finished  with  a  red  slip  pebble 
polished.  (See  PI.  19,  Fig.  a  and  Chapter 
9.  P-  53  ) 


36 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


27.  Fragment  of  the  stem  of  a  cup  similar  to  the 

above. 

28.  Two  cups  of  orange  slip  ware  o.  10  m.  diameter 

and  0.06  m.  high.  On  one  of  them  a  few 
Greek  characters  have  been  roughly  painted 
but  they  are  undecipherable. 

29.  A  circular  pottery  lamp  with  a  handle. 

30.  Fragment  of  a  cup  of  very  fine  ware  with 

painted  wavy  design. 

,    ^    .  xn©i 

31.  An  ostrakon  bearmg 

the  inscription 


CIOXC 
MHNAI 


32.  Part. of  an  iron  hinge  0.13  m.  long. 

33.  Part  of  a  vessel  in  plain  red  ware  of  spherical 

form  0.23  m.  diameter  with  a  short  neck 
0.14  m.  diameter. 

34.  Half  of  a  shallow  bowl  0.20  m.  diameter,  of 

plain  red  ware;  no  base  ring. 

35.  A  number  of  clay  sealings  some  stamped; 

three  designs. 

36.  A  large  ostrakon  (c.  0.12  m.  by  o.iom.)  of 

fifteen  lines.   (See  below.) 


Ostrakon 
found  in  the 
South 
Sacristy. 


The  Ostrakon  found  in  the  south  sacristy  seems  to  consist  of  incipits  or  first  lines  of 
Greek  hymns  or  anthems,  separated  by  /  or  \ .  Unfortunately  it  has  been  rubbed  by  drift- 
ing sand  and  is  quite  illegible  in  the  central  portion.  The  following  are  the  words  which  can 
be  read: 


AT  re  ho  c//nA"  •  • 


FtC€N 


^Cd^Tf  .... 

^f  H  . .  .  . 

Line  5.    6  A/    e)y'6C  HMOO  H    •  •  •  • 

♦  t  • 

Line  10.  e  ne^yAV  HO 

«       «  t 

Line  15.  ^^OOPHCAC  ^  AyctOn  H  C  UP  .  .  .  ^ 

Canon  F.  E.  Brightman  is  of  the  opinion  that  this  inscription  is  of  the  same  nature  as 
Crum's  Ostraka  517,  518: — i.  e.,  that  it  contains  proper  anthems  for  some  festival,  and  he  has 
kindly  made  the  following  notes: 
Line  2.  cf.  Ps.  xciv.  (xcv).  i. 

AtvTC  ayaWLaacofieOa  tq5  Kvplo) 
Line  3.  cf.  Ps.  xcv  (xcvi). 

"Acrare  tw  KvpLa>  aafia  kulvov,  acrare  t(o  KvpL(o  -q  yrj. 

Line  5.    Thi.  looks  like  Ps.  lxxx  (Lxxxi). 

[XaXmcraTe  eV  veofXTjvLa  adXTnyyi]  iv  ivarjfjict)  rj[ficpa  iopTr)*;  r^fiwv]. 
Line  6.    It  is  difficult  to  see  to  what  peaev  can  belong  except  -qpeaev. 
Line  7.    ?  crowv^'^Loiv. 

Line  8.    i^avrXel  seems  to  be  the  only  possible  interpretation  of  €^avT€€L. 
Line  9.    ?  pvtrai. 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  TWO  CHURCHES  NEAR  ADDENDAN 

The  Northern  Church  (E  i) 

The  northern  of  the  two  churches  which  He  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  opposite  the  village  Condition  of 
of  Faras,  was  in  an  excellent  state  of  preservation  when  it  was  visited  in  the  spring  of  1908.  Church. 
Unfortunately  the  turbulent  weather  of  the  following  summer  caused  much  destruction  and  when 
the  building  was  revisited  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  detailed  study  in  March,  1909,  its  condition 
was  much  less  perfect.  The  south  column  of  the  Arch  of  Triumph  had  fallen  and  was  in  frag- 
ments, nearly  half  of  the  remaining  portion  of  the  vault  to  the  south  sacristy  had  fallen  and  many 
minor  portions  of  the  structure  had  suffered  from  disintegration.  The  ruin  was  in  a  precarious 
condition  and  much  of  the  upper  part  in  imminent  danger  of  falling. 

The  position  of  the  church  is  shown  on  the  map  of  Faras  (PL  10).    It  stands  on  a  ledge  of  Situation  of 
sandstone  at  the  northern  end  of  the  rocky  hill,  locally  called  Gebel  Sahaba,  and  some  150  m.  Church. 
from  the  water's  edge.    At  this  point  has  been  fixed  the  boundary  between  Egypt  and  the  Sudan, 
the  actual  line  of  which  seems  to  have  been  arranged  to  cross  the  river  from  the  north  to  the 
south  in  order  to  avoid  dividing  either  of  the  villages  of  Faras  and  Addendan  into  two  parts  for 
purposes  of  administration. 

The  general  arrangement  of  the  plan  is  normal,  but  the  strvicture  has  several  points  of  interest  Arrange- 
which  will  be  described  in  detail.  The  church  is  one  of  the  largest  that  we  studied;  it  measures 
22.80  m.  long  and  12.60  m.  wide.  The  opposite  sides  are  exactly  parallel,  but  the  angles  are  far 
from  true  right  angles,  though  the  outline  of  the  plan  does  not  deviate  from  the  rectangular  to 
so  great  an  extent  as  that  of  the  southern  church  on  the  opposite  bank  (F2).  The  photographs 
and  drawings  of  the  building  afford  a  far  better  idea  of  the  church  than  any  written  description, 
but  there  are  some  points  which  cannot  be  illustrated. 

The  tribune  occupies  the  greater  part  of  the  sanctuary  with  the  result  that  the  altar  has  been  The  Haikal. 
placed  more  to  the  west  than  is  usual.  It  is  doubtful  if  this  was  the  original  arrangement,  for  the 
doors  to  the  sacristies  are  almost  meaningless  at  the  present  time  as  they  are  blocked  up  for  nearly 
half  their  height  by  the  brickwork  of  the  tribune.  The  altar,  which  was  built  of  crude  brick  (not 
of  burnt  brick  as  in  the  other  examples) ,  stands  between  the  piers  of  the  Arch  of  Triumph.  This 
position  would  not  allow  of  a  screen  between  the  columns,  yet  that  a  screen  existed  at  some  period 
is  almost  certain,  for  there  is  a  rough  seating  for  a  beam  cut  in  each  column  a  little  below  the 
necking. 

The  columns  are  fine  monoliths  of  sandstone  4.07  m.  long.    The  base  consists  of  a  square  The  Arch  of 
member  0.50  m.  high,  above  which  there  are  four  fillets  separated  by  V-shaped  mouldings  worked  ^"^^^M- 
round  the  column,  all  of  which  is  worked  on  the  one  stone.  Both  the  capitals  from  these  columns 
are  in  the  church,  but  one  is  very  much  battered.    They  are  almost  identical  in  design  with  that 
found  in  the  church  at  Debereh,  but  perhaps  rather  more  crude  in  execution.    (PI.  26,  Fig.  a.) 

The  nave,  which  is  separated  from  the  aisles  by  arcades  of  four  arches,  is  exceptionally  long  The  Nave. 
in  proportion  to  its  width.  It  is  only  3.75  m.  wide  and  it  is  1 2.65  m.  long,  but  yet  in  spite  of  this 
proportion  there  are  only  four  arches  in  each  arcade.  The  walls  are  of  rubble  to  the  level  of  one 
course  above  the  brick  arches;  over  which  they  are  of  brick  treated  in  the  usual  manner  with 
oversailing  courses  below  the  spring  of  the  vault.  There  were  four  openings  from  the  upper 
aisles  on  either  side. 

(37) 


38 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


The  Pulpit. 


Sacristies. 


The  Aisles. 


The  Western 
Chambers. 


The  Upper 
Story. 


The  base  of  a  pulpit  of  crude  brick  stands  against  the  centre  pier  on  the  north  side  of  the  nave. 
This  is  an  unusual  position,  as  in  the  other  examples  the  pulpit  was  always  found  against  the  pier 
nearest  to  the  Arch  of  Triumph.  The  theory  of  a  rearrangement  of  the  fittings  may  well  account 
for  its  situation.  The  enlargement  of  the  tribune  caused  the  altar  to  be  built  under  the  Arch 
of  Triumph,  thus  necessitating  the  removal  of  the  screen.  If  a  screen  was  considered  essential 
the  obvious  position  would  have  been  between  the  two  next  piers  to  the  west  of  the  original 
sanctuary  and  if  it  was  fixed  in  that  position  the  pulpit  would  naturally  have  been  removed  to 
its  present  site. 

The  two  sacristies  are  very  similar  in  proportion,  but  the  southern  is  slightly  larger  than  the 
other  owing  to  the  irregularity  of  the  plan.  There  are  no  niches  in  either  chamber,  but  in  each 
there  are  two  narrow  windows  placed  high  up  in  the  outer  walls.  Besides  the  openings  to  the 
apse  each  sacristy  has  a  door  communicating  with  the  aisle. 

The  outer  wall  of  the  north  aisle  has  been  destroyed  for  the  greater  part  of  its  height,  and 
there  is  nothing  to  show  the  disposition  of  the  niches,  but  it  was  obviously  similar  to  the  south 
wall  of  the  church.  The  south  aisle  is  in  a  very  perfect  state  of  preservation  as  the  photograph 
of  the  interior  on  PI.  21  shows.  The  breadth  is  2.14  m.  and  the  length  14.45  m.  The  vault 
springs  2.60  m.  above  the  ground  and  rises  to  a  total  height  of  4.01  m.  There  are  five  large  niches 
in  the  outer  wall,  and  at  a  level  o.io  m.  above  the  springing  there  are  four  windows  about  0.20  m. 
wide  and  0.70  m.  high  cut  through  the  vault.  These  windows  rake  up  through  the  wall  so  that 
on  the  outside  they  are  at  a  level  0.55  m.  higher  than  on  the  inside.  Between  each  of  these 
windows  there  is  a  niche  or  recess  of  similar  dimensions  on  the  outer  face  of  the  wall  (see 
PI.  21,  Fig.  a). 

The  western  chambers  of  the  church,  which  are  badly  damaged  inside,  possess  no  unusual 
features.  The  staircase  is  entered  from  the  south  side  of  the  western  bay  and  the  steps  lead  up 
on  the  right  in  a  contrary  direction  to  the  sun.  The  northwest  chamber  is  entered  from  the 
north  aisle  and  not  from  the  western  bay. 

There  are  but  few  indications  of  the  arrangement  of  the  upper  story.  The  openings  from 
the  upper  aisles  through  the  nave  wall  have  already  been  mentioned  and  besides  these  the  only 
evidence  is  given  by  the  outer  wall  of  the  south  side  of  the  church  which  has  seven  window  openings. 

To  the  east  of  the  south  door  and  about  a  metre  from  the  south  wall  of  the  church  there  is 
the  foundation  of  a  crude  brick  wall  setting  ofF  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  building.  This 
was  probably  the  east  wall  of  a  porch,  similar  to  that  which  was  found  at  the  southern  of  the  two 
churches  at  Faras  (F2),  but  no  further  evidence  of  it  could  be  discovered. 


The  Domed  Church  near  Addendan  {E  2) 

Position    of        The  smaller  church  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  in  this  district  stands  almost  out  of  sight 
the  Church.    ^£  ^j^^  river  behind  the  sandstone  hill.    It  is  a  thousand  metres  distant  from  the  former  church 
and  nine  hundred  metres  from  the  river,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  bare  plain  of  undulating  sand  with 
occasional  outcrops  of  sandstone. 
Condition  of        Parts  of  the  structure  are  standing  to  a  considerable  height,  but  the  interior  has  been  very 
the  Building.  \^^^\y  damaged  and  appears  to  have  been  intentionally  wrecked.    It  was  quite  impossible  to 
comprehend  the  plan  of  the  church  from  those  parts  which  were  standing  above  the  fallen  brick 
and  silted  sand,  and  it  was  not  until  the  upper  level  of  the  rubbish  had  been  removed  that  the 
theory  already  advanced,  of  its  having  been  a  domed  church,  was  confirmed.    Large  fragments  of 
the  crude  brick  dome  were  found  just  as  they  had  fallen  in  the  centre  of  the  church,  and  the 
lower  parts  of  the  piers  which  had  supported  the  central  dome  were  seen  underneath. 
The  Plan.  The  plan  thus  disclosed  is  quite  exceptional.   The  nave  had  a  central  dome  2.00  m.  in  diameter, 

and  a  vaulted  aisle  1.55  m.  wide  and  6.65  m.  long  was  built  on  each  side  of  it.    Beyond  the  aisles 


THE  TWO  CHURCHES  NEAR  ADDENDAN 


39 


on  either  side  there  are  two  other  long  vaulted  chambers,  but  these  do  not  form  part  of  the  body  The  Plan. 
of  the  church  as  they  only  communicate  with  it  by  a  single  small  door  in  each  case  placed  towards 
the  western  end  and  they  were  also  thrown  open  to  the  air  on  the  outer  side  by  two  wide  arched 
openings. 

The  Haikal  is  2.15  m.  long  and  about  2.40  m.  wide  and  is  square  ended  though  probably  it 
had  an  apsidal  vault  over  it  carried  on  flagstones  over  the  angles  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  small 
churches. 

On  either  side  of  the  Haikal  there  is  a  narrow  sacristy  divided  by  an  arch  into  two  parts  and 
over  the  compartment  furthest  from  the  sanctuary  there  was  built  a  dome  supported  on  a  high 
drum.  At  the  western  end  of  the  church  the  disposition  of  the  chambers  was  designed  to  balance 
the  eastern  end,  for  on  the  north  side  of  the  customary  bay  out  of  the  nave  there  is  a  chamber 
similar  in  proportion  to  the  sacristies  and  which  also  shows  evidence  of  a  dome  over  its  northern 
half.  The  staircase  which  balances  this  room  on  plan  must  have  been  roofed  in  a  similar  manner 
though  there  is  no  trace  of  the  dome  or  vault  left  as  conclusive  evidence.  The  existence  of  the 
staircase  would  imply  that  there  had  been  an  upper  story,  but  it  is  difficult  to  explain  exactly 
how  much  of  the  building  was  carried  up.  That  there  were  no  rooms  over  the  outer  aisles  is 
evident  from  the  fact  that  there  was  no  sign  that  a  vault  at  the  upper  level  had  scribed  against 
the  drums  of  the  angle  domes  and  that  there  was  not  sufficient  debris  to  account  for  two  vaults 
and  the  necessary  walls.  The  section  of  the  walls  between  the  aisles  is  quite  insufficient  to  carry 
a  vault,  for  as  may  be  seen  on  PI.  28,  the  wall  above  the  springing  of  the  vault  is  but  one  brick 
thick.  There  are  but  two  possible  explanations  of  the  staircase:  either  it  led  to  a  chamber  over 
the  western  bay  or  else  to  a  flat  roof. 

There  are  a  few  other  points  of  interest  in  the  church  which  are  worth  noting  and  first  among  Paintings  in 
these  is  the  large  fragment  of  a  painting  on  plaster  on  the  east  wall  of  the  Haikal.  Several  ^^'^  Haikal. 
persons  are  represented,  but  unfortunately  only  the  lower  parts  of  the  figures  are  left  and  the 
effect  is  that  of  a  confusion  of  feet  and  the  skirts  of  robes.  It  is  probable  that  the  painting 
portrayed  a  number  of  saints,  for  the  costumes  are  of  all  types.  Some  show  priestly  robes  with 
stoles  of  dark  red,  while  one  at  least  represents  a  soldier  whose  feet  and  legs  are  encased  in 
armour.  The  limitation  of  time  prevented  a  detailed  study  of  this  interesting  relic,  but  it  would 
undoubtedly  repay  any  attention  that  might  be  devoted  to  it.  Before  the  building  was  left  a 
heap  of  rubbish  was  piled  against  the  wall  to  guard  the  colours  from  exposure  to  the  sun. 

In  the  northeast  comer  of  the  Haikal  there  were  thirteen  jars  of  rough  pottery,  five  of  which 
were  of  barrel  form  and  the  remainder  of  the  ordinary  water-jar  type  with  two  ears.  On  the 
south  side  of  the  Haikal  there  is  a  screen  wall  projecting  into  the  nave  and  returning  towards  the 
north. 

In  the  north  sacristy  a  portion  of  the  floor  was  paved  with  red  burnt  bricks  measuring  0.24  m.  The 
by  0.1 1  m.  by  0.035  i^--  ^^id  in  a  herring-bone  pattern,  and  a  small  fragment  of  similar  paving  was  ^^'^^^^"■S- 
uncovered  in  the  south  aisle  close  to  the  door  to  the  outer  aisle.    During  the  excavation  a  number 
of  these  bricks  were  found  in  the  rubbish  in  the  nave ;  a  fact  which  suggests  that  the  whole  church 
had  been  paved  in  this  manner. 

The  true  arch,  which  must  have  been  turned  upon  centring,  was  largely  used  in  this  building,  Arches. 
of  which  the  most  striking  example  now  standing  is  the  arch  between  the  nave  and  the  western 
bay  which  has  a  span  of  2.42  m.  The  use  of  the  true  arch  is  so  unusual  that  its  employment  would 
of  itself  mark  a  building  as  noteworthy,  but  in  this  example  there  are  other  features  of  special 
interest.  The  complication  of  the  plan  and  the  ambitiousness  of  the  structure  suggest  a  late 
development  of  the  art,  and  in  support  of  such  a  supposition  we  have  the  burnt  brick  paving  and 
the  technical  skill  displayed  in  the  structure. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE  ANCIENT  FORTRESS  AND  CHURCHES  AT  SERREH 

Situation.  The  principal  village  of  Serreh  (Serreh  el  Gharb)  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile  about  fifteen 

miles  north  of  Haifa,  and  adjoins  the  village  of  Aksheh.  The  east  bank  is  almost  destitute  of 
vegetation,  but  there  is  a  small  amount  of  cultivation  towards  the  northern  part  of  the  district 
and  a  fertile  slope  is  usually  available  at  low  Nile. 

On  the  east  bank  opposite  the  centre  of  Serreh  el  Gharb  there  is  a  ruined  town  enclosed  bv  a 
crude  brick  wall  standing  close  to  the  river's  edge,  and  on  a  sUght  rocky  eminence.  Many  of  the 
houses  are  still  comparatively  intact,  but  most  have  crumbled  and  fallen,  and  the  whole  forms  a 
jumbled  mass  of  cavernous  vaults  huddled  together  in  meaningless  confusion.  One  of  the  most 
prominent  features  of  the  town  is  the  small  church  which  is  near  the  centre  of  the  ruins  and  has 
a  diminutive  dome  standing  well  above  the  surrounding  buildings. 
The  Ancient  A  study  of  the  wall  revealed  the  fact  that  it  was  not  similar  in  character  to  the  other  buildings 
Fortress.  ^.j^g  gj^g        ^j^^^  been  ruined  prior  to  the  building  of  the  Christian  town.    In  parts  where 

it  had  entirely  fallen  away  it  had  been  patched  with  work  of  different  type  and  in  other  places  the 
houses  had  been  built  partly  over  the  wall.  The  photograph  on  PI.  32  shows  the  type  of  work 
distinctly  and  also  some  of  the  later  walling.  In  the  spring  of  1908  Mr.  Alan  Gardiner  advanced 
a  suggestion  to  the  writer  that  the  wall  had  originally  been  built  as  a  fortress  by  Egyptians  of  the 
Middle  or  New  Empire,  and  together  we  studied  its  structure. 

The  wall  is  about  80  m.  long  on  the  east  side  but  there  is  a  large  gap  in  which  it  is 
entirely  missing.  At  each  end  of  this  wall  there  are  angle  buttresses,  and  return  walls  run  off 
towards  the  river  for  a  distance  of  about  50  m.  and  there  are  indications  that  they  were  formerly 
continued  for  a  further  distance  of  about  60  m.  to  the  water's  edge  (PI.  30,  Fig.  b).  In  line  with 
the  south  wall  of  the  fort  there  is  a  piece  of  strong  stone  walling  which  was  laid  bare  by  the  flood 
of  1909.  This  piece  of  masonn^  consists  of  a  skin  of  ashlar,  filled  with  rubble,  about  10 m.  wide 
on  the  river  face  and  running  back  into  the  sloping  bank.  It  seems  to  have  been  the  base  of  a 
wall  and  probably  marked  the  western  limit  of  the  south  wall  of  the  fortress.  There  is  no  evidence 
to  prove  the  existence  of  a  wall  along  the  river  bank,  though  one  may  have  existed  and  in  that  case 
the  ashlar  pier  would  have  formed  a  breakwater  to  prevent  the  stream  from  undermining  the 
fortress  wall. 

The  parts  of  the  enclosure  wall  which  are  now  standing  are  in  a  very  dilapidated  condition, 
and  no  detailed  measurements  of  them  can  be  taken  until  extensive  clearing  has  been  made. 
A  thickness  of  nearly  four  metres  still  shows  in  places  above  the  rubbish,  but  that  this  does  not 
represent  the  original  strength  of  the  wall  is  evident  from  the  battered  and  pitted  condition  of 
the  surfaces.  The  ground  on  which  the  fortress  was  biiilt  is  sloping  and  irregular,  and  the  highest 
level  of  the  ground  is  at  the  eastern  side.  A  portion  of  both  the  north  and  south  walls  was  built 
with  the  brick  courses  sloping  to  follow  the  fall  in  the  ground.  This  is  indicated  on  the  plan  by 
hatching  at  a  different  angle  to  the  rest  of  the  walling.  The  bricks  were  all  laid  as  headers  and 
large  timbers  running  right  through  the  thickness  of  the  wall  were  used  at  intervals  to  prevent  the 
wall  bursting.  The  holes  that  these  timbers  occupied  can  be  seen  clearly,  but  very  little  of  the 
wood  remains  owing  to  the  ravages  of  the  white  ants.  At  every  nine  or  ten  courses  in  height 
mats  of  halfa  grass  were  laid  through  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  apparently  for  the  purpose  of 

(40) 


ANCIENT  FORTRESS  AND  CHURCHES  AT  SERREH 


41 


equalizing  the  pressure.  The  wide  joints  caused  by  these  mats  can  be  seen  in  the  photograph  The  Ancient 
(PI.  32,  Fig.  b).  Fortress. 

Round  the  eastern  part  of  the  fort,  where  the  rock  upon  which  it  was  built  rises,  there  is  a 
ditch  with  battering  sides  cut  in  the  sandstone,  which,  of  course,  dies  out  as  it  returns  along 
the  north  and  south  sides  of  the  enclosure,  as  the  rock  falls  away.  The  ditch  is  about  4  m. 
wide  at  the  bottom  and  its  greatest  depth  is  about  3  m.  From  tlie  north  return  of  the  ditch 
there  are  two  branches,  one  running  at  an  acute  angle  towards  the  wall  and  one  leading  away 
from  the  wall  and  rising  in  level  until  it  dies  away. 

The  whole  fort  is  Egyptian  in  character  and  from  the  marked  similarity  of  its  brickwork 
to  that  of  the  great  Twelfth  Dynasty  fortress  at  Mirgisseh  it  seems  more  than  probable  that 
it  is  of  the  same  date. 

The  Christians  utilized  this  ancient  structure  and  repaired  the  wall  where  it  was  badly  Christian 
damaged.  The  small  houses  are  built  in  a  cluster  without  any  apparent  attempt  at  symmetrical 
arrangement  and  are  principally  grouped  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  fortress,  but  some,  probably 
of  later  date,  have  spread  through  a  gap  in  the  centre  of  the  east  wall  and  over  to  the  line  of 
the  ditch.  The  photographs  on  PI.  29  show  the  mass  of  buildings  piled  up  in  apparent 
confusion.  The  whole  of  the  area  is  scattered  with  broken  pottery,  amongst  which  many  fine 
painted  fragments  can  be  seen. 

Besides  the  Central  Church,  two  other  little  churches  stand  prominent.  They  are  just  out- 
side the  walls,  one  to  the  north  and  one  to  the  south  of  the  fortress.  At  the  back  of  the  southern 
of  these  two  there  are  the  remains  of  yet  another  church,  but  it  is  in  a  far  more  ruinous  condition 
than  are  the  others.  Very  little  indeed  can  be  seen  of  its  general  arrangement,  but  it  is  of  about 
the  same  size  as  its  neighbour. 


The  Central  Church. 

The  little  Central  Church  is  pecuUar,  for,  in  spite  of  its  small  dimensions,  it  has  almost  all  the  The  Plan. 
component  parts  of  the  larger  dromic  type.    It  is  only  6.30  m.  wide  and  9.10  m.  along  its  longest 
side  externally,  and  yet  it  consists  of  Haikal,  two  sacristies,  nave,  and  aisles,  and  has  a  staircase 
leading  to  an  upper  stor>'.    The  plan  on  PI.  30  shows  the  arrangement. 

The  Haikal,  which  is  square  ended,  measures  about  2.00  m.  long  and  1.33  m.  wide.    It  is  The  Haikal. 
roofed  with  an  apsidal  vault  and  the  curved  end  is  carried  over  the  angles  on  flagstones.  A 
narrow  door  close  against  the  sanctuary  arch  leads  into  the  north  sacristy. 

The  nave  consists  of  two  parts,  of  which  the  western  is  2.45  m.  long  and  has  an  average  width  The  Nave. 
of  1.35  m.  This  bay  is  vaulted  in  the  usual  manner.  A  wide  arched  opening  communicates  with 
the  north  aisle  and  a  small  door  on  the  south  side  leads  to  the  staircase.  The  eastern  bay  of  the 
nave  consists  of  a  rectangle  1.75  m.  long  and  about  1.65  m.  wide.  Arches  on  all  four  sides 
support  walls  which  are  carried  up  above  the  general  level,  culminating  in  a  dome  which  is 
carried  on  roughly  formed  oversailing  courses  of  pendentive  form. 

The  photographs  on  PI.  31  show  the  construction  of  the  church  very  clearly.  The  curiously 
misshapen  arch  leading  from  the  domed  space  into  the  Haikal  can  be, seen  in  the  first  photograph. 
The  small  square-headed  aperture  over  the  arch  also  opens  into  the  Haikal.  These  two  openings 
were  the  only  means  of  obtaining  natural  light  in  the  sanctuary,  and  this  must  have  been  very 
small  in  amount,  for  as  can  be  seen  from  the  photographs,  the  upper  story  obscured  the  direct 
light  which  at  present  pours  through  the  openings  at  the  base  of  the  dome. 

The  two  aisles  are  of  different  shape,  owing  to  the  lack  of  the  customary  arrangement  The  Aisles. 
of  chambers  at  the  west  end  of  the  church,  and  a  portion  of  the  south  aisle  has  been  cut  off  for 
the  staircase.    The  south  aisle  is  1.60  m.  wide  and  2.70  m.  long,  and  has  an  external  door  on 
the  south  side  near  its  western  end.    A  door  0.50  m.  wide  leads  from  this  aisle  into  the  south 


42 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


sacristy,  a  low  unlighted  chamber  1.65  m.  wide  and  1.90  m.  long.  The  north  aisle  is  1.70  m. 
wide  and  4.85  m.  long.  The  north  entrance  is  situated  a  little  to  the  west  of  the  centre  of 
this  aisle. 

The  north  sacristy,  like  that  on  the  south,  is  absolutely  unlighted.  Its  average  dimensions 
are  1.75  m.  wide  and  2.10  m.  long.  There  are  two  niches  in  it,  one  in  the  north  wall  and  one  in 
the  west. 

The  Upper  The  arrangement  of  the  upper  story  is  unusual,  as  the  arrangement  of  the  vaults  does  not 
Story.  coincide  with  that  of  the  lower  story.    It  can  be  seen  in  the  photograph  of  the  dome  from  the 

south  that  the  chamber  over  the  south  aisle  is  vaulted  across  the  wider  span.  A  similar  vault 
existed  on  the  north  side  and  the  gallery  over  the  north  aisle  was  divided  into  two  chambers. 
No  further  evidence  is  obtainable  of  the  structure  of  the  upper  part  without  considerable  studv; 
but  the  author  was  prevented  by  circumstances  from  devoting  more  time  to  this  building,  though 
in  regard  to  construction  it  certainly  deserves  more  detailed  consideration.  The  other  two  domed 
churches  in  the  neighbourhood  and  the  remains  of  a  large  dromic  church,  some  1,500  metres  south 
from  the  fortress,  have  been  thoroughly  cleared  and  measured. 


The  North  Domed  Church. 


Situation 
and  Plan. 


The  Baikal. 


Sacristies. 


The  Nave. 


The  North  Domed  Church  stands  nearly  30  m.  from  the  line  of  the  fortress  wall  upon  a  bluff 
of  rock  and  about  40  m.  from  the  river.  It  is  in  a  good  state  of  preservation  except  that  most  of 
the  vaults  have  fallen.  This  church  is  almost  the  same  size  as  the  little  domed  church  in  the 
centre  of  the  town,  but  it  is  less  complicated  in  plan  and  in  section,  for  there  is  no  upper  story. 
The  outside  dimensions  are  about  8.30  m.  long  by  7.45  m.  extreme  width. 

The  Haikal  and  sacristies  are  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  church  by  a  cross  wall  with  but 
two  openings  in  it,  a  small  door  between  the  south  sacristy  and  the  aisle,  and  a  narrow  arched 
opening  between  the  nave  and  Haikal. 

The  Haikal  is  1.70  m.  wide  and  2.10  m.  long,  and  as  in  the  former  church  is  square-ended. 
It  was  covered  by  an  apsidal  vault  which  sprung  at  a  height  of  1.95  m.  from  the  floor  and  rose 
to  a  total  height  inside  of  3.05  m.  Two  narrow  doorways  0.55  m.  wide  close  against  the  division 
wall,  one  on  either  side  of  the  sanctuary,  lead  into  the  sacristies. 

The  north  sacristy  is  1.80  m.  wide  and  2.15  m.  long.  The  vault  sprung  at  2.00  m.  from 
the  groimd  and  rose  to  2.90  m.  There  are  two  niches  in  this  chamber.  The  one  in  the  north  wall 
is  0.48  m.  wide  and  0.45  m.  deep;  it  has  a  roughly  arched  head  formed  of  three  bricks  making  a 
total  height  of  opening  0.67  m.  The  other  niche,  which  is  in  the  west  wall  of  the  chamber,  is  a 
small  square-headed  opening  0.35  m.  wide  and  0.27  m.  high. 

The  south  sacristy  is  similar  to  the  other  in  dimensions  and  the  vault  springs  at  the  same 
level.  It  is  1.90  m.  wide  and  2.10  m.  long.  There  are  no  niches  showing  in  this  chamber,  unless 
the  sill  in  the  east  wall  is  the  remains  of  one,  for  although  it  at  present  forms  an  opening  through 
the  wall,  the  thickness  shown  does  not  represent  the  original  depth  of  the  brickwork,  as  the  outer 
face  of  the  wall  has  perished.  There  is  a  table  of  solid  brickwork  built  against  the  east  wall  of 
this  sacristy.    It  is  0.40  m.  wide,  0.63  m.  long  and  i.oo  m.  high. 

The  nave,  which  is  5.05  m.  long  and  has  an  average  width  of  1.65  m.,  consists  of  two  bays. 
The  real  distinction  between  these  bays  is  marked  by  the  roofing.  The  western  bay  is  vaulted  at 
a  mean  springing  level  of  2.10  m.  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  nave  is  carried  up  to  a  greater  height, 
and  was  roofed  by  a  small  dome,  1.70  m.  diameter,  supported  on  a  drum.  Perhaps  one  of  the 
most  interesting  features  of  the  building  is  the  ingenious  method  of  relieving  the  nave  vault  from 
the  weight  of  the  brickwork  forming  the  drum.  A  reference  to  the  cross  section  on  PI.  35  shows 
this  clearly.  A  rough  relieving  arch  was  built  outside  over  the  vault,  but,  lest  this  should  not 
sufifice,  the  builders  arranged  the  height  of  the  four  windows  in  the  drum  so  that  the  one  over  the 


ANCIENT  FORTRESS  AND  CHURCHES  AT  SERREH 


43 


vault  should  cut  down  to  the  level  of  the  voussoirs.  The  crown  of  the  vault  is  thus  unloaded.  Tlie  Nave. 
It  is  perhaps  a  theoretically  doubtful  construction  to  leave  it  so,  as  the  haunches  are  somewhat 
heavily  loaded,  but  this  remains  the  best  preserved  part  of  the  roofing.  Above  the  level  of  the 
nave  vault  the  drum  is  reduced  from  the  square  to  the  circular  form  by  squinch  arches.  The 
opening  between  the  nave  and  the  Haikal  has  an  irregular  arched  head  and  is  of  a  peculiar 
shouldered  form  as  the  arch  spreads  wider  than  the  vertical  jambs.  That  opening  is  roughly 
walled  up  with  stones  and  mud. 

The  aisles  are  similar  to  each  other  in  arrangement  but  are  not  of  equal  width.    The  north  The  Aisles. 
aisle  has  an  average  width  of  1.55  m.  while  the  south  aisle  is  on  an  average  1.75  m.  wide.  In 
the  north  aisle  there  are  two  small  windows  but  in  the  south  aisle  there  is  only  one.    The  narrow 
communicating  door  0.60  m.  wide,  between  the  south  aisle  and  the  sacristy,  is  against  the 
south  wall. 

Under  the  north  arch  supporting  the  dome,  there  is  a  low  brick  platform  0.70  m.  wide  and  The  Pulpit. 
T  .00  m.  long  placed  against  the  sanctuar>'  wall.    From  the  proportion  of  the  structure  it  is  natural 
to  assume  that  it  indicates  the  position  of  a  pulpit  similar  to  those  customary  in  the  larger 
churches. 

The  church  was  constructed  of  crude  brick  throughout,  and  although  it  was  plastered  inter-  General 
nally  with  a  fine  mixture  of  gypsum  and  crushed  sandstone  upon  which  traces  of  paintings  show,  ■^'^'^^"''^■s- 
externally  it  does  not  seem  that  the  brickwork  was  plastered.    Above  the  level  of  the  window 
heads  a  horizontal  band  of  bricks  on  edge  was  carried  round  the  building  and  at  the  west  end  there 
are  three  or  four  more  of  these  bands  spaced  four  courses  apart.    The  bricks  average  0.39  m.  by 
0.19  m.  by  0.075 

For  purposes  of  comparison  the  plan  and  sections  of  this  church  have  been  placed  on  the  plates 
with  the  plan  and  sections  of  the  South  Domed  Church.  It  would  be  well  before  considering 
the  other  example,  to  emphasize  one  point  which  is  common  to  the  three  domed  churches  at 
Serreh.  They  maintain  the  'dromic'  idea  of  all  the  Nubian  churches.  At  first  glance  the 
plans  of  these  buildings  showing  a  central  dome  suggest  a  cruciform  arrangement.  The 
sections  and  construction  show  that  no  such  idea  was  adopted,  and 
it  can  clearly  be  seen  that  the  domes  merely  form  an  incident  in  the 
roofing. 

There  was  not  a  deep  accumulation  of  rubbish  in  the  church,  thus  4  \k  Objects 

it  was  improbable  that  many  objects  of  interest  should  remain  in       J[J^^  found. 
the  building. 

Only  three  objects  of  any  sort  were  found: 

1.  In  the  north  sacristy  there  was  a  small  bronze  ornament, 
perhaps  the  handle  of  a  brush  or  similar  article.    It  is  0.035  m.  high 

and  0.025       ^\'ide.    The  design  is  best  shown  in  the  cut.  <     •  ozST  7 

2.  In  the  sanctuary  a  fragment  of  an  incised  leather  book  cover        Bronze  Ornament 
was  lying  against  the  door  to  the  north  sacristy.    Part  of  a  single 

parchment  leaf  was  attached  upon  which  there  are  two  or  three  Greek  letters,  but  it  is  too 
much  worm-eaten  to  distinguish  whether  the  language  is  Coptic  or  Nubian. 

3.  In  the  south  aisle  a  pair  of  plain  iron  tweezers  and  two  plain  iron  pointed  needles,  all 
three  on  a  small  ring. 

The  South  Domed  Church. 

This  little  building  stands  some  seventeen  metres  to  the  south  of  the  fortress  and  opposite  Situation. 
the  centre  of  the  original  wall.    The  site  is  very  nearly  level,  but  the  steep  slope  of  the  river 
bank  is  only  about  fourteen  metres  in  from  the  front  of  the  church. 


44 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


Condttton.  The  outside  dimensions  of  the  church  are  slightly  greater  than  in  the  former  example,  the 

length  being  9.10  m.  and  the  breadth  7.25  m.  The  general  arrangement  is  like  that  of  the 
former  example,  and  there  are  only  two  minor  points  of  difference;  the  sole  access  to  the 
sacristies  is  through  the  Haikal,  and  the  space  under  the  domed  bay  is  defined  from  the  rest  of 
the  nave  by  an  arch. 

A  large  part  of  the  walling  at  the  southwest  has  entirely  disappeared  but  the  actual  line  of 
the  brickwork  can  be  traced.  It  is  shown  clearly  in  the  photograph  (PI.  33,  Fig.  c)  taken  from 
outside,  and  from  this  view  a  good  impression  of  the  construction  can  be  obtained. 

The  Haikal.  The  Haikal  is  square-ended  and  measures  1.60  m.  wide  and  2.10  m.  long.  Its  south  wall 
has  completely  disappeared  and  all  the  adjacent  walls  are  endangered  owing  to  the  deep  excava- 
tions made  by  the  sebakh  diggers  inside  the  building.  The  customan^  apsidal  vault  springs  at 
1.60  m.  above  the  floor  level  and  rose  to  a  height  of  2.80  m.  It  was  carried  over  the  eastern 
angles  of  the  chamber  on  sandstone  flags  and  was  plastered  with  a  mixture  of  gypsum  and  crushed 
sandstone  of  a  reddish  hue  on  which  traces  of  painting  are  visible. 

Sacristies.  A  doorway  0.50  m.  wide  leads  into  the  north  sacristy,  a  rectangular  chamber  which  measures 

1.80  m.  by  2.10  m.  The  vault  springs  at  2.60  m.  and  rises  to  3.52  m.  There  are  three  small 
windows  in  this  room,  two  in  the  north  wall  0.65  m.  high  the  heads  placed  close  up  to  the 
spring  of  the  vault,  and  one  at  the  same  level  in  the  east  wall.  The  inner  sills  of  these  windows 
are  cut  down  lower  than  on  the  outside  to  form  niches,  and  those  to  the  north  windows  are 
made  slightly  wider  than  the  window  opening.  There  are  two  other  niches  with  arched  heads, 
one  in  the  east  and  one  in  the  north  wall. 

Of  the  south  sacristy  very  little  remains  except  the  outer  walls.  There  is  a  single  window 
in  each  of  these  and  the  lower  part  of  a  niche  shows  in  the  east  wall.  The  indications  of  the  spring 
of  the  vault  show  that  it  was  similar  to  the  roof  of  the  other  sacristy. 

The  Nave.  The  total  length  of  the  nave  is  5.60  m.  and  it  is  1.60  m.  wide.    The  eastern  bay,  over  which 

the  dome  is  built,  is  1.90  m.  long  so  that  the  actual  dome  is  oval  and  not  circular.  The  angles  of 
the  rectangle  are  gathered  over  by  pendentives,  but  it  could  not  be  ascertained  whether  any 
attempt  was  made  to  build  them  carefully,  for  they  are  thickly  coated  with  plaster  and  access 
is  impossible. 

The  openings  through  the  walls  supporting  the  dome  have  semi-circular  true  arched  heads. 
On  the  ground  level  these  are  four  in  number.  The  eastern  one  forms  the  entrance  to  the  Haikal. 
On  the  other  three  sides  there  are  lunettes  cut  through  the  walls  just  above  the  lower  order  of 
arches,  which  relieve  the  latter  of  much  of  the  superincimibent  weight. 

This  double  arched  construction  is  to  be  seen  in  the  photograph  of  the  church  from  the  south- 
west (PI.  33,  Fig.  c).  The  lunettes  on  the  north  and  south  sides  of  the  dome  do  not  open  into  the 
aisles  but  are  walled  up  with  a  single  thickness  of  brick.  Above  the  crown  of  the  vaults  there  is 
a  window  with  an  arched  head  in  each  face  of  the  drum,  which,  unlike  the  former  example,  is  carried 
up  rectangular  both  inside  and  out  to  the  springing  of  the  dome. 

The  western  part  of  the  nave  is  covered  by  a  vault  which  follows  the  line  of  the  lunette  in  the 
eastern  wall;  it  springs  at  a  level  2.40  m.  above  the  floor  and  rises  to  a  height  of  3.60  m.  There 
is  an  opening  with  a  semi-circular  true  arch  1.35  m.  wide  leading  to  the  north  aisle.  The  south 
wall  of  this  part  of  the  nave  is  entirely  destroyed. 
The  Aisles.  The  north  aisle  is  1.58  m.  wide  and  5.55  m.  long.  It  is  covered  by  a  vault  similar  to  that 
over  the  western  part  of  the  nave.  There  are  two  narrow  windows  towards  the  eastern  end  of 
the  aisle  and  one  towards  the  west,  which  is  bricked  up  on  the  inner  face.  High  up  in  the  west 
wall  there  are  two  others.    .All  these  windows  have  square  heads  formed  of  bricks  on  edge. 

The  north  door  is  near  the  centre  of  the  aisle.  It  is  built  with  internal  reveals  but  now  shows 
an  arched  reveal  in  the  head  on  the  outside.  The  view  of  this  doorway  (PI.  33,  a)  shows  this 
curious  arrangement  and  also  the  sunk  Latin  cross  above  the  arch.    A  close  examination  of  both 


ANCIENT  FORTRESS  AND  CHURCHES  AT  SERREH 


45 


the  cross  and  the  arch  showed  that  a  filling  of  red  burnt  bricks  had  been  used,  but  now  only  a  few  The  Aisles. 
fragments  adhere.    I  here  are  many  fragments  of  these  bricks  lying  about.    The  lintels  over  the 
small  windows  are  also  of  red  brick. 

The  south  aisle  was  almost  a  replica  of  the  north,  but  its  outer  wall  is  standing  for  only  half 
its  length.    The  two  western  windows  are  in  existence  and  also  one  jamb  of  the  south  door. 

There  is  no  evidence  of  any  means  of  access  to  the  roof,  which  seems  to  have  been  made  up  to 
a  level  floor.    In  one  place  between  the  vaults  to  the  nave 
and  north  aisle  there  is  a  "sleeper  wall"  of  a  triangular 
shape  which,  it  is  natural  to  suppose,  served  to  stiffen  the 
floor.    (PI.  33,  Figs,  b  and  c.) 

There  is  a  low  brick  platform  at  the  north  end  of  the 
west  wall  of  the  church ;  it  is  irregular  in  shape  and  is  not 
level.    The  greatest  height  is  four  courses. 

Just  to  the  west  of  the  north  door  a  brick  wall  0.42  m. 
thick  and  about  0.60  m.  high  at  its  present  highest  point, 
extends  for  a  distance  of  1.40  m.  from  the  church. 

No  objects  were  found  during  the  clearing,  but  there 
is  a  large  block  of  red  granite  lying  in  the  church  which  is 
of  interest.  It  is  1.28  m.  long,  0.80  m.  wide  and  0.43  m. 
high.  On  the  upper  face  there  is  a  rectangular  sinking 
0.94  m.  long,  0.47  m.  wide  and  o.ii  m.  deep.  The  whole 
of  the  top  and  the  sides  are  very  finely  worked,  but  the  lower 
part  of  the  stone  is  left  rough. 

The  stone  is  now  lying  skewed  across  the  arch  leading 
to  the  sanctuary,  obviously  not  in  its  original  position  for  it  is  partly  in  the  excavation  made  by 
the  sebakh  diggers.    There  is  no  mark  to  show  for  what  purpose  it  was  used,  but  it  may  have 
served  as  an  altar  in  the  church  and  it  was  probably  taken  from  some  ancient  Egyptian  building. 


Ancient 
Granite 
Block. 


FLAN 

Granite  Block. 


The  Southern  Church. 

Some  fifteen  hundred  metres  south  of  the  fortress  there  is  a  hummock  of  rock  close  to  the  Situation 

water's  edge  and  upon  this  a  few  fragments  of  wallins:  mark  the  position  of  a  church  of  the  standard  ^'"^  ,.  . 

^,   ,  ■    ,  ,       ,    ,  f    1      •  Conditton 

dromic  type.    The  buildmg  has  been  very  largely  destroyed  and  the  process  01  cleanng  was 

much  impeded  by  the  mass  of  fallen  brickwork  which  had  become  almost  as  solid  as  concrete. 

A  large  part  of  the  western  end  of  the  nave  has  been  razed  to  the  ground  and  the  rock  is 
denuded  of  all  brickwork,  but  the  eastern  part  of  the  building  was  piled  high  with  rubbish.  In 
view  of  these  circumstances  it  was  found  to  be  impossible  to  make  a  complete  plan  of  the  church 
and  impracticable  to  make  an  exhaustive  excavation  of  the  interior. 

The  plan  (PI.  36)  shows  the  general  arrangement,  which  is  the  same  as  the  standard  example 
at  Debereh.  Unlike  any  of  the  other  large  churches,  this  one  is  built  of  brick  throughout  and  no 
stone  is  used  for  walling. 

The  Haikal  is  3.35  m.  wide  and  4.30  m.  long.    The  apsidal  end  was  set  out  carefully  and  forms  The  Haikal. 
a  true  semi-circle  on  plan.    The  lower  parts  of  the  usual  three  niches  show  in  the  wall,  but  there 
is  no  trace  left  of  the  tribune. 

The  base  of  the  altar  was  found  in  the  position  shown  on  the  plan.    It  is  built  of  burnt  bricks 
0.30  m.  by  0.18  m.  by  0.075  m. 

On  either  side  of  the  sanctuary  doorways  lead  into  the  sacristies.  The  northern  of  these  two 
openings  has  been  bricked  up  for  part  of  its  height  as  was  the  case  at  Debereh.  The  floor  of  the 
Haikal  appears  to  have  been  the  solid  rock,  for  it  has  been  worked  to  a  true  surface. 


46 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


Sacristies.  The  north  sacristy  is  2.80  m.  long  from  east  to  west  and  2.60  m.  wide.    Besides  the  bricked 

opening  communicating  with  the  Haikal  it  has  a  narrow  doorway  0.50  m.  wide  leading  into  the 
end  of  the  north  aisle.  A  rough  capital  of  light  red  granite  was  lying  on  the  floor  of  the  room. 
Its  upper  part  is  0.32  m.  square,  and  below  a  vertical  face  o.io  m.  deep  the  stone  is  gathered 
to  the  circular  form.    The  lower  diameter  is  0.28  m.  and  the  total  height  of  the  stone  is  0.23  m. 

The  south  sacristy  is  very  similar  but  is  slightly  smaller  and  lacks  the  wide  recess  in  the  west 
wall.    It  measures  2.76  m.  east  to  west,  and  2.45  m.  north  to  south. 
Arch  of  Ven-  little  of  the  nave  and  arcades  remains,  but  there  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the  width 

Triumph.  between  the  arcades  was  about  3.60  m.  and  that  there  were  five  arches  on  either  side.  The  Arch 
of  Triumph  was  of  the  usual  form  with  circular  shafts  set  in  reveals.  The  northern  reveal  has 
a  base  still  in  position,  consisting  of  a  square  measuring  0.46  m.  on  its  sides  and  0.12  m. 


Granite  Capital.  Base  of  Column. 


high,  above  which  is  a  circular  member  of  conical  form  0.18  m.  high  and  0.36  m.  in  upper 
diameter.  On  the  south  side  a  large  piece  of  the  base  has  been  roughly  cut  away,  probably  to 
receive  the  base  of  a  post  to  a  screen. 

The  other  base  was  found  near  its  original  position  and  it  is  similar  in  form,  but  slightly 
larger.  Its  upper  diameter  is  0.42  m.  and  the  square  member  has  sides  0.50  m.  long.  The  height 
is  the  same  as  the  other  example. 

There  were  three  fragments  of  the  sandstone  columns  lying  in  the  nave,  of  which  the  longest 
measures  1,75  m.  It  is  of  oval  section  0.34  m.  and  0.27  m.  in  diameter  and  has  a  V-shaped 
necking  groove  0.02  m.  wide  worked  round  it  about  0.16  m.  from  its  broken  end.  One  part  of 
the  column  which  came  against  the  wall  has  been  left  in  the  rough.  On  the  other  side  a  rough 
groove  extends  the  length  of  the  shaft,  apparently  the  housing  for  the  screen.    One  of  the  other 


ANCIENT  FORTRESS  AND  CHURCHES  AT  SERREH 


47 


Aisles  and 
Doors. 


fragments  has  exactly  the  same  features  but  is  1.02  m.  long  and  0.33  m.  and  0.32  m.  in  diameter.  Arch  of 
The  third  fragment  shows  both  ends  broken.    It  is  0.80  m.  long  and  0.36  m.  at  its  greatest 
diameter.    About  the  centre  a  very  roughly  scratched  inscription  is  to  be  seen  consisting  of  five 
or  six  characters  with  a  horizontal  contraction  over  and  just  below  four  characters  which  are 
probably  ICOY. 

The  pulpit  occupies  the  usual  position,  and  it  is  in  fair  preservation,  though  the  upper  The  Pulpit. 
part  has  been  much  battered.    The  three  steps  now  standing  represent  a  total 
height  of  0.60  m.,  but  it  is  probable  that  originally  the  platform  was  one  step 
higher. 

The  north  aisle  is  2.00  m.  wide  and  15.45  m.  long.  The  outer  wall  is  missing 
for  the  greater  part  of  its  length,  but  it  stands  about  i.oo  m.  high  at  the  eastern  end. 

Near  the  pier  of  the  Arch  of  Triumph  is  a  low  brick  screen  wall  running  out 
from  the  north  wall  and  finishing  in  a  short  return  eastwards.  It  leaves  a  passage 
0.57  m.  wide  between  the  return  and  the  pier. 

The  north  doorway  was  discovered  amid  a  heap  of  rubbish.  It  is  i.oom. 
wide  and  has  external  reveals  in  which  the  stumps  of  sandstone  pilasters  were 
found.  Owing  to  the  fall  in  the  ground  there  are  two  steps  in  place  of  the  cus- 
tomary low  stone  sill. 

A  grey  granite  coltunn  was  found  among  the  rubbish  about  a  metre  and  a 
half  outside  the  door.    It  is  1.38  m.  long  and  has  an  average  diameter  of  0.21  m. 

The  illustration  shows  its  form,  which  is  Hke  that  of  the  example  found  in  the 
church  at  Faras,  F2. 

Of  the  south  aisle  very  little  remains  but  the  south  wall,  in  which  there  are  six 
niches.  The  wall  is  not  standing  to  any  great  height  at  any  part  of  its  length  and 
towards  the  west  at  the  jambs  of  the  south  door  it  has  almost  disappeared. 

The  arrangement  of  the  south  door  appears  to  have  been  the  same  as  the  other, 
but  the  bare  jambs  alone  are  left. 

The  base  of  the  staircase  stands  at  the  western  end  of  the  south  aisle  in  the 
usual  position.    Only  part  of  the  west  wall  is  in  existence  and  there  is  but  a  bare  indication  of 
the  chamber  at  the  west  end  of  the  north  aisle. 

The  extreme  dimensions  of  the  building  are  22.50  m.  long  and  1 1.56  m.  wide. 


*   ii  - 

Granite  Col- 
umn from 
Doorway. 


CHAPTER  IX 


THE  CHURCH  NEAR  WADY  HALF  A 


Situation. 


The  Plan. 


Position  of 
Sanctuary  of 
Late  Period. 


The  Earlier 
Church. 


The  tem])les  at  the  ancient  Egyptian  town  of  Behen,  which  stands  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
river  about  three  miles  south  of  the  railway  terminus  of  Haifa,  are  well  known  to  all  travellers 
who  have  visited  the  district.  The  town  itself  and  the  adjacent  cemeteries  cover  a  large  area 
on  the  edge  of  the  sandstone  plain  which  skirts  the  river.  A  few  hundred  yards  south  of  the 
girdle  wall  of  the  ancient  fortress  a  mass  of  brickwork  was  noticed  in  the  spring  of  190Q.  As 
extensive  excavations  were  in  progress  at  the  cemeteries  and  the  town  under  the  direction  of 
Dr.  Randall-Maclver,  a  gang  of  men  was  detailed  to  this  site.  The  potsherds  turned  up  at  the 
start  of  the  work  were  of  Christian  date,  and  it  soon  became  evident  that  a  church  had  stood  at 
this  point. 

The  walls  and  piers  that  were  first  revealed  were  exceptionally  confusing  and  the  variety 
of  floor  levels  tended  to  make  the  elucidation  of  the  plan  even  yet  more  difficult.  The  first 
measurements  which  were  taken  showed  no  clear  arrangement  and  a  reference  to  the  plan  on 
PI.  37  will  give  some  idea  of  the  difficulty  of  appreciating  the  meaning  of  the  piers.  At  this 
period  of  the  work  only  the  outline  of  the  unsymmetrical  piers  was  visible  and  the  two  low  walls 
marked  F  and  G  on  the  plan  were  still  covered.  The  pier  marked  D  was  also  still  below  the 
level  of  the  excavations,  but  a  continuation  of  the  wall  which  lies  to  the  east  of  it  was  standing, 
as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines. 

It  was  evident  that  this  plan  was  a  reconstruction  of  an  earlier  building  and  that  the  old 
piers  and  walls  had  been  buttressed  by  additional  brick  walls  (shown  by  black  hatching  and  a  black 
outline)  while  other  piers  had  been  added  of  rough  stonework  (shown  by  light  hatching). 

The  floor  of  this  upper  stnicture  which  fell  sharply  towards  the  east  failed  before  the  apse 
was  reached  and  the  walls,  which  in  no  places  stood  to  any  great  height,  were  not  above  the  floor 
level  at  this  point.  This  fact  confirmed  the  writer  in  the  opinion  that  the  sanctuary,  at  the  time 
of  the  reconstruction,  was  moved  further  towards  the  west  and  that  the  site  of  the  earlier  apse 
was  either  unused  or  put  to  some  other  purpose. 

The  division  between  the  Haikal  and  the  nave  of  the  latest  structure  is  clearly  marked  by 
the  low  parapet  marked  E  on  plan,  which  rakes  across  from  the  pier  C  to  the  brick  construction 
marked  H.  This  latter  does  not  seem  to  have  been  a  structural  pier  and  in  all  probability  formed 
the  pulpit.  It  has  a  small  niche  in  its  base  opening  towards  the  south.  The  wall  which  adjoins 
the  pulpit  on  the  east  was  standing  to  a  greater  height. 

A  square  pier  t.6o  m.  to  the  east  of  the  low  screen  wall  marked  the  position  of  the  altar. 
Part  of  a  finely  worked  slab  of  sandstone  which  had  probably  formed  the  altar  top  was  in  the 
rubbish  at  the  foot. 

Slightly  deeper  excavation  at  this  point  brought  to  light  another  floor  of  beaten  mud 
about  0.60  m.  below  the  first  level,  and  another  low  screen  wall,  marked  F  on  plan,  was 
dibclosed  beneath  the  later  altar.  When  the  remainder  of  the  site  was  cleared  to  this  level 
it  was  found  that  the  additional  piers  of  brick  and  stone  did  not  continue  to  the  floor  and  that 
only  those  brick  piers  and  walls  which  are  marked  in  black  on  the  plan  remained  part  of  the 
structure. 

(48) 


THE  CHURCH  NEAR  WADY  HALFA 


49 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  plan  thus  disclosed  is  more  homogeneous,  but  even  this  must  have 
been  far  from  the  original  arrangement. 

The  keynote  of  the  design  is  to  be  found  in  the  relationship  of  the  three  L-shaped  piers  The  Compo- 
marked  A,  B  and  C.    These  must  have  formed  three  of  four  piers  arranged  in  a  square  to  carry  q^j^"^,.^^ 
a  dome  and  thus  we  see  an  arrangement  not  unlike  that  in  the  domed  church  at  Addendan.  The 
other  brick  piers  in  the  centre  part  of  the  building  represent  alterations  carried  out  at  some 
later  date. 

In  other  respects  the  general  arrangement  of  the  chambers  is  normal,  but  there  are  one  or 
two  points  worthy  of  note. 

The  apsidal  end  is  of  unusual  form;  it  is  slightly  horse-shoed  and  is  cut  off  fiat  on  the  east.  Hatkal. 

Of  the  tribune  nothing  remained  but  the  facing  to  the  west  and  the  rubbish  filling  upon 
which  the  steps  had  been  formed. 

The  floor  level  of  the  north  sacristy  is  considerably  below  the  general  level  of  the  aisle  owing  Sacristies, 
to  an  increase  in  the  slope  of  the  ground  and  access  to  it  is  given  by  well-built  stone  steps,  there 
being  four  risers  in  all.    There  is  a  low  bench  formed  of  mud  along  the  south  side  of  the  chamber 
with  a  return  along  the  west  wall. 

It  is  probable  that  some  similar  access  existed  to  the  south  sacristy,  but  no  trace  now  remains 
and  the  heavy  west  wall  which  divides  the  north  sacristy  from  the  aisle  is  not  duplicated  in  the 
case  of  the  southern  chamber. 

At  this  lower  level  of  the  church  it  was  noted  that  there  were  further  walls  extending  from  An  Earlier 
the  church  on  the  northwest,  the  ^vest  and  the  south  sides,  and  that  the  buildings  on  the  south 
side  extend  for  some  twenty  metres.  Study  of  the  adjacent  walls  showed  that  they  ran  under  the 
church  and  formed  a  number  of  chambers  which  do  not  coincide  with  the  upper  structure.  A 
portion  of  this  lower  building  was  cleared  and  sufficient  indications  were  found  to  prove  that  it  was 
of  Christian  date  and  the  potsherds  were  not  unlike  those  found  in  the  church. 

No  further  excavations  were  made  owing  to  lack  of  time  and  it  was  useless  under  the  circum- 
stances to  make  any  study  of  the  lower  building.  Indeed  it  would  be  impossible  without  an  expen- 
diture of  much  labour  and  time.  It  is  hoped  to  make  a  complete  excavation  of  this  site  at  a 
later  date,  but  the  church  forms,  for  purposes  of  this  publication,  a  separate  entity. 

It  was  extremely  difficult  to  make  sure  to  which  period  of  the  structure  each  object  belonged 
which  was  found  in  the  church,  but  every  care  was  taken  to  ensure  accuracy  in  this  respect. 
The  list  of  objects  given  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  is  arranged  as  far  as  possible  in  three  groups, 
i.  e.,  those  found  in  the  two  levels  of  the  church  and  those  found  below  the  floor  of  the  earlier 
church. 

Some  of  the  objects  indicate  the  original  foimdation  of  the  church  to  have  been  of  early  date  Painted 
and  are  therefore  of  peculiar  interest.  The  small  painting  on  wood  which  was  found  in  the  rubbish  Panel. 
filling  of  the  tribune  is  a  specimen  of  great  interest  as  it  is  of  early  type  and  probably  dates  from 
the  seventh  century.    A  careful  copy  of  it,  made  by  Mr.  H.  R.  Mileham,  is  produced  as  a 
frontispiece  to  this  volume.    We  are  indebted  to  him  also  for  the  following  notes  on  the  subject: 

"The  fragmentary  state  of  the  painting  leaves  room  for  doubt  whether  the  figure  was  repre- 
sented as  standing  or  seated.  In  the  latter  case  the  figure  would  have  been  of  a  tolerably  elegant 
proportion,  similar  to  that  of  the  large  painted  figures  in  a  fragmentary  condition  on  the  walls 
of  the  church  at  Addendan,  and,  like  these,  not  distantly  related  to  the  figures  in  the  sixth 
century  mosaic  ceiling  of  the  Oratory  of  S.  Maria  in  Cosmedin  at  Ravenna. 

"On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  objected  that  the  seated  position  is  not  commonly  given  to 
apostles  in  Byzantine  art  as  it  is  to  Christ  or  the  Virgin,  and  it  must  be  allowed  that  what  in  one 
case  would  stand  for  the  line  of  the  left  knee,  is  much  like  the  indication  in  Byzantine  work  of  a 
hand  veiled  in  the  mantle  holding  a  book,  as  in  the  case  of  the  painted  portrait  of  Pope  Cornelius 
from  the  Catacomb  on  the  Appian  Way,  as  well  as  in  some  of  the  Ravenna  figures:  it  must  further 


5° 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


Painted 
Panel  from 
Early 
Church. 


be  admitted  that,  in  our  example,  indication  of  a  left  hand  is  wanting,  where  alternatively  it 
might  be  expected,  viz.,  on  the  extreme  right  of  the  panel  overlapping  the  book.  It  is  possible 
however  that  the  subject  may  have  carried  over  on  to  a  neighbouring  board.    The  fragment  of  a 

foot  suggests  a  right  foot  where  the  left  is 
expected;  but  that  is  probably  due  to  care- 
less draughtsmanship.  Such  folds  of  the 
drapery  as  remain  do  not  imply  that  the 
legs  were  crossed,  although  this  attitude 
does  occur  in  certain  late  Roman  work, 
notably  in  the  seated  figures  of  S.  Peter  and 
S.  Paul  on  a  gilded  glass  in  the  British 
Musevmi,  which  is  probably  of  the  fourth 
century.  While  the  possible  influence  of 
Egyptian  art  which  so  constantly  treated 
the  seated  figure  need  not  be  ignored  and 
it  may  be  remembered  that  the  seats  in 
the  tribune  of  Coptic  churches  attest  the 
orthodoxy  of  the  seated  posture  in  Church 
dignitaries;  yet  without  corroboration  by 
contemporary  and  kindred  work  it  were 
rash  to  pronounce  this  as  other  than  a 
standing  figure,  and  impossible  effectively 
to  defend  it  from  the  charge  of  faulty 
proportion. 

"Unless  it  is  an  error  of  the  draughts- 
man the  right  hand,  through  the  absence 
of  a  thumb  towards  the  left,  is  showing  the 
palm  in  the  act  of  blessing  or  expounding. 

"As  regards  the  workmanship  of  the 
panel.    The  paint  is  not  applied  over  a 
gold  ground,  as  is  the  case  with  much  Byzantine  work,  but  applied  in  body  colour  on  a  white 
priming  of  some  thin  plaster  laid  on  the  wood  panel.    The  gold,  which  only  occurs  in  the  halo, 
seems  to  have  been  laid  when  the  painting  was  complete  except  for  the  black  line. 

"The  method  of  painting  would  appear  to  be  first  a  coat  of  red  to  the  background,  or  possibly 
to  the  whole  surface  of  the  panel.  Certainly  the  red  is  apparent  under  the  gold  of  the  halo  and 
appears  at  the  shoulders  inside  the  boundary  line.  A  flat  tint  of  red  and  white  was  applied  to 
flesh  parts,  probably  to  the  whole  area  of  the  head.  The  beard  and  hair  were  then  picked  out 
with  touches  of  white  as  also  the  eyes  and  the  bridge  of  the  nose.  The  features  and  hair  were 
then  freely  drawn  in  brown  touches  of  somewhat  transparent  colour  and  the  accent  of  the  black 
line  was  added  last  and  just  subsequently  to  the  gold.  The  drapery  similarly  seems  to  have 
been  commenced  by  its  half  tone  as  a  flat  coat,  the  high  lights  being  superimposed  in  thicker  and 
whiter  colour.  A  little  of  the  brown  line  occurs  on  the  draper}^  The  blue  strokes  are 
undoubtedly  formed  of  a  mixture  of  black  and  white.  The  drapery  tint  appears  under  the  flesh 
colour  in  the  fingers,  from  which  the  hand  would  seem  to  have  been  painted  over  the  drapery. 
The  white  encircling  the  gold  of  the  halo  was  laid  in  two  or  at  the  most  three  strokes  and  was 
of  pure  white. 

"It  is  doubtful  if  there  was  any  glazing  with  transparent  colour;  the  richness  of  tone  is 
probably  due  to  the  action  of  time.  Most  probably  egg  was  the  medium  used  with  the  colours. 
The  pigment  is  of  a  very  firm  substance  and  together  with  the  plaster  ground  (as  seen  in  certain 
odd  fragments)  is  about  one-fortieth  of  an  inch  thick. 


Restorations  of  Paintings. 


THE  CHURCH  NEAR  WADY  HALFA  51 

"The  figure  is  doubtless  intended  to  represent  an  apostle  or  evangelist.  No  Pallium  is  shown 
nor  stole  on  the  undergarment,  though  stoles  appear  on  the  Addendan  fragments  very  similar 
to  those  on  the  Ravenna  figures. "    This  painting  is  now  in  the  Museum  at  Khartimi. 

The  scraps  of  parchment  found  in  the  north  aisle  form  one  fairly  large  fragment.  Mr.  Parchment 
Crum  has  studied  this  and  has  kindly  added  the  following  transcription  and  notes.  from^Eart^ 

Three  pieces  forming  one  fragment.  Church. 

e-r^l  ka^<o  y  er-(v  ^/Lo  ^f^^ 

^       ^  /^^Jwt^  -r/r>.  AYO^fJv-^-r  n^ir'j 

[wiA^oy  r|]  ervz-Tis.^  c  o  rvr-rv  ^l"-  •  -  .^n   xa;  «^a*  ^ 


Parchment  Fragments  from  Church  at  Haifa. 


/ 


52  CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 

Parchment  "It  is  impossible  to  say  which  side  of  this  fragment  is  the  recto,  which  the  verso.    The  rem- 

from^Early^  nants  of  a  title,  at  the  foot  of  fol.  b,  might  be  either  the  heading  or  the  final  subscription  of  a 
Church.        text.    It  does  not  seem  possible  to  read  in  this  the  word  ivayydXtov  or  KadokiKov,  but  one 

is  tempted  to  complete  the  second  word  as  'Ict/c&j^o?,  translating  'of  James.'  What  the  bearing 

of  such  a  title  may  have  upon  the  text  I  leave  others  to  judge. 

/'The  intelligible  phrases  on  fol.  a  are: — '.  .  .  .which  shall  die  and  shall  wither  and  shall 

....    It  is  not  I  that  do  sign  {(T(f)payit,eLv)  thee  (fern.)  but  the  hand  of  the  Father  that  signeth 

thee  (Jem.).  The  fingers  of  the  Son,  it  is,  do  sign  thee;  the  fingers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  it  is,  do 

take  away .  . .  . ' 

"And  on  fol.  b: — '  that  did  create  [man  in  His]  image  &  likeness  He  that  did 

affix  the  [nails?]  the  (?)  cross  ??)....  the  light  them  that  sit  in  darkness  and  the  shadow 

of  Death.   He  that  hath  created  us  ,.    fashioned  us  with  His  hands.' 

"It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  much  even  of  the  above  is  uncertain  in  reading  and  meaning. 
On  fol.  a  a  woman  appears  certainly  to  be  addressed — which  makes  any  relation,  even  homiletic, 
with  a  baptismal  liturgy  improbable.  One  might  however  suppose  it  a  magical  text,  connected 
with  some  form  of  exorcism,  applied  to  a  woman.  What  remains  on  fol.  b  consists,  on  the  other 
hand,  of  commonplaces  such  as  might  be  met  in  countless  homiletic  or  liturgical  texts. 

"The  date  of  this  MS.  would  be  very  difficult  to  fix;  the  limits  of  the  eighth  and  twelfth 
centuries  might  perhaps  suffice  to  include  it. " 


OBJECTS  FOUND  IN  UPPER  LEVEL  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


In  Sanctuary. 

1.  Fragment  of  white  marble,  with  inscription 

in  letters  0.02  m.  high. 

In  North  Aisle. 

2.  A  small  iron  arrow  head  by  the  north  door. 

3.  Several  small  fragments  of  bone  cut  to  flat 

surfaces. 

In  Nave. 

4.  A  fragment  of  carved  ivory. 

5.  Many  fragments  of  mud  plastering  with  a 

whitewash  surface  upon  which  an  inscrip- 


tion had  been  painted  in  Coptic  characters 
with  some  black  pigment.  The  average 
height  of  letters  is  0.0 1  m.  high. 
6.  Close  to  the  pier  marked  C  there  were  found 
the  fragments  of  a  cup  or  chalice  of  fine 
red  hagmatitic  ware,  not  unlike  the  one  found 
at  Faras  (see  Chapter  VI,  p.  35,  and  PI. 
19a).  At  the  rim  there  is  a  narrow  band 
of  purple  black  both  inside  and  out,  and  a 
similar  Une  of  pigment  was  applied  to  the 
base.  The  total  height  of  the  cup  is  0.13  m., 
the  upper  diameter  0.12  m.,  and  the  diam- 
eter at  the  base  0.07  m. 


4.  Ivory  Carving. 


THE  CHURCH  NEAR  WADY  HALFA 


53 


7.  Bowl. 


6.  Chalice. 


A  broken  flat  bowl  or  dish  of  the  same  ware 
as  the  cup  was  found  with  it.  Its  diameter 
is  0.15  m.,  and  its  total  height  0.0475  ^• 


In  South  Aisle. 
8 


A  plain  flat  bowl  0.115  m.  diameter  with 
straight  sloping  sides,  which  had  been  used 
for  oil. 


g.  A  sherd  of  yellow  slip  ware  with  a  design  of  a 
brown  wavy  line  between  two  straight  lines 
and  a  red  dot  at  each  bend. 

In  the  Northwest  Chamber. 

10.  A  double  circular  stone  stamp  0.065 

diameter  and  0.025  m.  thick. 

1 1 .  A  flat  iron  key  for  a  lock  of  Roman  pattern 

with  a  loose  ring  on  the  handle.  Its  total 
length  is  0.325  m. 


10.  Stone  Stamp. 


32f  ■* 


II.  Flat  Roman  Key. 


54 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


OBJECTS  FOUND  IN  LOWER  LEVEL  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


In  Sanctuary. 

The  following  objects  were  found  in  the 
rubbish  of  which  the  body  of  the  tribune 
was  formed : 

12.  The  small  painting  on  wood  0.117  m.  high 

and  0.039  m.  wide  (see  frontispiece  and 
page  49  sup.).  This  may  have  been  an 
ikon,  or  perhaps  formed  part  of  a  panel  in 
a  screen. 

13.  Five  small  iron  crosses.    The  cross  pieces  are 

fixed  by  single  rivets  and  the  uprights  are 
turned  over  to  form  a  hook  (see  PI.  38, 
Fig.  b). 

The  dimensions  of  the  crosses  are: 

o.io  m.  by  0.06  m. 

0.0975  m.  by  0.05s  ni. 

0.085  0  05  rn- 

0.075     by  0  045 

0.065  by  °  o5  ™- 
The  hooks  suggest  that  the  crosses  were 
intended  to  hang  on  a  vestment  or  perhaps 
on  a  string  in  front  of  an  ikon.  The  latter 
custom  is  common  in  modem  Greek 
churches. 


14.  Lamp  with  Loop  Handle. 


14.  A  broken  lamp  with  loop  handle,  0.09  m. 

diameter. 

In  North  Sacristy. 

15.  A  roughly  woven  white  garment  folded  to 

fourteen  thicknesses  was  found  lying  on 


the   bench.    It   was   bady   damaged  by 
termites,  and  no  conclusion  as  to  its  shape 
could  be  made. 
16.  A  wrought  iron  key  with  a  wooden  handle 
and  iron  ferrule. 


1 7 .  Jar  Sealing. 


In  South  Sacristy. 

1 7.  A  jar  sealing  of  fine  gray  clay  with  five  impres- 

sions of  a  saint  on  horseback  treading  on  a 
beast. 

18.  Fragment  of  a  light  iron  strap  hinge.  The 

strap  diminishing  and  terminating  in  a 
heart  shape.    Fragment  0.13  m.  long. 


19.  Seven-wicked  Lamp. 


19.  A  broken  lamp  for  seven  wicks  of  rough  red 

ware. 

20.  Fragment  of  plain  circular  lamp,  red  ware. 

2 1 .  Some  small  fragments  of  parchment,  inscribed. 


16.  Key  with  Wooden  Handle. 


THE  CHURCH  NEAR  WADY  HALFA 


55 


In  North  Aisle. 

22.  Several    small    fragments    of  parchment. 

(See  note  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Crum.) 

23.  A  few  yellow  and  green  opaque  glass  beads  of 

hemispherical  form. 

24.  A  rough  sandstone  stamp  near  north  door. 


24.  Rough  Stone  Stamp. 

In  Nave. 

25.  A  plain  circular  lamp  of  rough  red  ware 

o.io  m.  diameter. 

26.  A  large  sherd  of  dull 'red  slip  with  a  simple 

design  of  black  horizontal  lines  with  three 
short  vertical  lines  above  and  swags. 


27.  Lid  of  Jar. 

In  South  Aisle. 

27.  A  broken  fragment  of  the  lid  of  some  vessel 

in  fine  white  well  burned  ware.    It  has  an 
incised  design  of  circular  form  and  an  indi- 
cation   of   an    inscription.    The  circular 
design  is  0.065  ™-  diameter. 
In  Northwest  Chamber. 

28.  A  damaged  lamp,  with  an  incised  decoration, 

of  fine  red  ware  highly  polished.  (See  PI. 
20c.) 


In  Staircase. 

29.  In  the  space  under  the  stairs  was  found  a 
steatite  ferrule  for  a  staff  similar  to  the 
Early  Dynastic  mace  head  in  form.  It  is 
0.065  ™-  ill  diameter  and  0.04  m.  high. 


.066 

29.  Steatite  Ferrule. 


30.  A  small  jug  with  handle,  lip  and  base  ring, 
in  a  rough  light  red  ware  poorly  burnt.  It 
is  0.10  m.  high  and  the  base  ring  0.05  m. 
in  diameter. 


30-  Jug- 

31.  Forty-one  brass  bells  were  found  in  a  heap 
on  the  floor  of  the  space  under  the  staircase. 
Several  of  them  were  badly  damaged. 
They  are  all  about  0.035  ™-  to  0.04  m. 
high  and  are  formed  of  two  equal  pieces 
soldered  together.  To  the  top  a  flat  ring 
is  attached  and  at  the  bottom  there  is  a 
cut  through  the  metal.  A  small  piece  of 
rough  iron  inside  formed  the  striker.  A 
photograph  of  a  selection  of  these  bells  is 
shown  on  PI.  38a. 


OUTSIDE  THE  CHURCH. 


Outside  the  Walls  at  the  East  End. 

32.  Part  of  an  iron  escutcheon  0.04  m.  radius. 


33.  Some  fragments  of  parchment. 


56 


CHURCHES  IN  LOWER  NUBIA 


IN  THE  CHAMBERS  BELOW  THE  CHURCH. 


U nder  the  Sanctuary. 

34.  A  well  worked  granite  bowl  0.06  m.  high  and 

0.155111.  diameter  with  four  projections 
from  the  rim.    (See  photo.  000,  PI.  t,2>c.) 
Under  the  Nave. 

35.  A  broken  cup  of  plain  red  haematitic  slip  ware 

0.12  m.  diameter  and  0.08  m.  high. 


Under  Northwest  Chamber. 

36.  A  large  rough  jar  of  coarse  red  ware  0.60  m. 

high,  0.30  m.  upper  diameter  and  0.60  m. 
at  its  greatest  diameter. 

37.  A  small  fragment  of  papyrus  with  six  charac- 

ters upon  it,  probably  Greek. 


Lock  Escutcheon. 


INDEX 


Abu-jeras.  6 
Abu  Simbel,  5,  12 
Adda,  see  Kelaa-t-Adda 
Addendan,  5,  22,  37-39 
Adwa,  3 
Aksheh,  22.  40 
Alwah,  3 
Aswan,  i,  2 

Basilica,  11 

Batn-el-Hagar,  3 
Bawsaka,  6.  26 
Begrash,  3,  4   5,  26 
Behen,  24,  48 
Bells,  55 
Bishoprics,  6 
Blemyes,  2,  5,  24 
Bowl,  20 
Brickwork,  8 

Brightman,  Canon  F.  E.,  36 
Bucoras,  6 
Butler,  A.  J.,  i 
Byzantine  work,  7,  8,  25 

Cairene  churches,  i.  12,  15 
Capitals,  5,  16,  37,  46 
Cataracts,  2,  3,  5 
Chalices,  35,  52,  53 
Choisy,  M.,  8 

Christianization  of  Nubia,  2 
Columns,  5,  16,  25,  33,  37,  46,  47 
Coxe,  Eckley  B.,  Jr.,  2 
Crosses,  54 

Crowfoot,  Mr.  J.  W.,  12 
Crum,  Mr.  W.  E.,  19,  29,  34,  51 

Daira,  6,  26 

Dating,  19,  29,  34,  49,  52 
Debereh,  14-21 
Diocletian,  7,  19 
Doll.  23 

Domed  Churches,  38,  39,  41-44 
Dongola,  6 

Dromic  Churches,  11,  etc.,  etc. 

Eirpanome,  2 

Faras,  5,  6,  15,  22-36 
Figiranton,  12,  13 
Fortress,  Blemyan 
Fortress,  Egyptian,  .[O  41 

Gardiner,  Mr.  A.  H..  40 
Glass.  19,  20,  30,  55 
Glendinning,  Mr.  P..  12  . 
Graves,  14,  23,  25,  29,  32 


Haifa,  48-56 

Ibrim,  see  Kasr  Ibrim 
Inscriptions,  34  and  see  Stelae 
Ivory,  52 

Jacobites.  2,  3 
Jesu,  Bishop,  29 
Justinian,  2 

Karanog,  24 

Kasr,  Al,  2,  3 

Kasr  Ibrim,  4,  6,  7,  12 

Kelaa-t-Adda,  5 

Keys,  53,  54 

Khartum,  3 

Korta,  6,  19 

Lamps,  19.  27,  32,  34,  35,  54,  55 

Mahaffy,  Prof.  J.  P.,  23 
Makorrah,  2,  5,  6 
Maks,  3 
Maris,  3,  5 

Martyrs,  Era  of,  19,  29 
Meilnarti,  5 

Mileham,  Mr.  H.  R.,  49 
Monophysites,  2 

Natron  Valley,  i,  12 
Nubia,  Geography,  2.  3,  7 

Paintings,  24,  39.  49.  50 
Parchments,  20,  34,  35.  43.  SL  54 
Petronius,  4 

Pottery,  19,  20,  30,  35,  36,  52-56 
Quatremere,  E.,  2,  5,  26 
Sai,  6 

Sandalwood,  35 
Sandstone  stamp,  20 
Sayce,  Prof.  A.  H.,  23 
Sealings,  35,  54 
Shenoute,  29 
Serreh,  40-47 
Silko,  2 
Steindorff,  19 
Stelae,  19,  21,  29 
Suenkur.  6 

Temples,  ancient,  24 
Termus,  6 

Theodora,  Empress,  2,  7 

Vaulting,  methods  of,  8,  9.  10 

Wady  Haifa,  Haifa 
Wiss,  6,  14 


Painting  on  Wood  from  Church  at  Haifa. 
Original  Size. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  2 


(c)  Kasr  Ibrim :  View  of  the  interior  of  the  church,  looking  east. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  3. 


W'kss;  The  princiiial  Imililiii.i;  Iri  nn  the  east 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  4. 


J 


(a)  View  from  the  north. 


(6)  Interior  looking  east. 


THE  CHURCH  OPPOSITE  DEBEREH. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  5. 


(a)  View  from  the  souin 


(6)  View  from  the  northwest. 


THE  CHURCH  OPPOSITE  DEBEREH 


Nubian  Churches. 


(c)  Interior  looking  west. 


THE  CHURCH  OPPOSITE  DEBEREH. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  7. 


Stela  found  in  Haikal. 


THE  CHURCH  OPPOSITE  DEBEREH. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE 


Scale  I  loo. 


THE  CHURCH  OPPOSITE  DEBEREH. 


THE  CHURCH  OPPOSITE  DEBEREH. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  10. 


SKETCH  MAP  OF  THE  DISTRICT  OF  FARAS. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  11. 


(a)  The  central  building  from  the  north. 


(b)  The  central  building  from  the  .southwest. 


(c)  The  fortress  wall  and  central  building  from  the  west. 


FARAS,  THE  FORTRESS. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE 


(6)  The  gate  in  the  fortress  wall. 


r-  


F.  I.  (c)  General  view  of  Faras  from  the  west,  F.  2. 


FARAS. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  13. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  15. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  16. 


(a)  Interior  looking  west,  before  excavation. 


(b)  Interior  looking  east,  showing  Tribune,  altar  and  pulpit. 


FARAS,  THE  SOUTHERN  CHURCH. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  17. 


FARAS,  THE  SOUTHERN  CHURCH. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE.  18. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  19. 


FARAS— POTTERY  FROM  THE  CHURCHES. 


(a)  From  south  church  at  Faras     (F.  2.) 


From  tomb  in  south  church,  Faras.     (F.  2.)     (c)  From  church  near  Haifa.     (H.  C.) 


(d)  Lamps  from  Faras  and  Haifa. 


{e)  Lamps  from  south  church  at  Faras.     (F.  2.) 
POTTERY  LAMPS. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  21 


{b)  Interior  looking  east. 
THE  NORTHERN  CHURCH  NEAR  ADDENDAN. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  22. 


THE  NORTHERN  CHURCH  NEAR  ADDENDAN. 


Nubian  Churches.  PLATE  23. 


THE  NORTHERN  CHURCH  NEAR  ADDENDAN. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  24. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  25. 


(a)  View  from  southwest. 


(b)  Sketch  of  church  (restored)  from  the  southeast. 
THE  DOMED  CHURCH  NEAR  ADDENDAN. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  26. 


(a)  Capital  from  the  north  church.  (b)   The  duined  church,  interior  looking  we.st. 


ADDENDAN. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  28. 


CROSS  SECTION. 


j ■ ■ ■■  I  


ELEVATION  jro^  NORTH. 


SECTION. 


DETAIL  of  BRICKWORK  ,  N,  AISLE  WALL 


■  ^  •  to       30     4«      «r<r  7*       *•»  T***   "*  '-»•     /Jo  A#o  MeN-- 

■I        I       I  I       I       I       I       I  \  I  I  I  \  J  I  I  I  I  I  r  '-""•tj. 


Scale  I  :  100  and  i  :  20. 


Sectional  brick,  black. 


THE  DOMED  CHURCH  NEAR  ADDENDAN. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  29. 


(b)  View  of  northern  half  of  the  town. 


(c)  General  view  of  the  town  from  the  river. 
EAST  SERREH. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  30. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  31. 


(<. )    \'ic\v  Ironi  Ihc  west. 


EAST  SERREH,  THE  CENTRAL  DOMED  CHURCH. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  32. 


EAST  SERREH. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  33. 


EAST  SERREH,  THE  SOUTH  DOMED  CHURCH. 


/ 

r 

/ 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  34. 


EAST  SERREH,  THE  NORTH  AND  SOUTH  DOMED  CHURCHES. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  35. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  36. 


Scale  I  loo. 


Sectional  brick,  black. 


EAST  SERREH,  THE  SOUTH  CHURCH. 


Nubian 'Churches. 


PLATE  37. 


SCALErof  METRES. 

I  0  1  2..  3  Jf.  o:  6  7.  S  $.  10.  II.  IZ.  13.  '-4.  IS  16.  1\ 

UaiiiJJ.iJ  I  I  I  I  I  I  1  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  { 

Scale  I  :  loo  Sectional  stone,  hatched. 

Sectional  brick,  black. 

THE  CHURCH  NEAR  WADY  HALFA. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  38. 


(c)  Granite  bowl. 
THE  CHURCH  NEAR  WADY  HALFA. 


Nubian  Churches. 


PLATE  39. 


DATE  DUE 

- 

NOV  1  * 

M/\R  3  0 ' 

UU't 

CAYLOHO 

rniNTEO  IN  U.S.A. 

DT135.N8P4V.2 
Churches  in  lower  Nubia, 

Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 


1  1012  00023  7711 


